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This is an early access version, the complete PDF, HTML, and XML versions will be available soon.
Article

Influence of Vibration-Assisted Dynamic Solidification on Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Permanent Mold Cast Aluminum Alloy 2024 with Conformal Cooling

by
Muhammad Waqas Ali Khan
1,
Rauf Ahmad
1,*,
Syed Masood Arif Bukhari
1,
Muhammad Sultan
2,
Naveed Husnain
1,*,
Muhammad Tuoqeer Anwar
3,
Umer Bin Nooman
4,
Hassan Raza
5,
Abid Latif
6,
Sajjad Ahmad
6 and
Khurram Hasnain Bukhari
6
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan 60800, Pakistan
2
Department of Agricultural Engineering, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan 60800, Pakistan
3
Department of Mechanical Engineering, COMSATS University Islamabad, Sahiwal Campus, Off G.T. Road, Sahiwal 57000, Pakistan
4
Department of Mechanical Engineering, NFC Institute of Engineering and Technology, Multan 60000, Pakistan
5
Department of Mechanical Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Hong Kong
6
Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan 60800, Pakistan
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2025, 9(12), 416; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp9120416 (registering DOI)
Submission received: 15 November 2025 / Revised: 9 December 2025 / Accepted: 15 December 2025 / Published: 18 December 2025
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Abstract

Aluminum alloy 2024 (AA2024) is widely used in the aerospace sector, where a fine, uniform, and equiaxed grain structure is crucial for achieving enhanced mechanical properties. This study examines the effect of dynamic solidification, assisted by mechanical vibrations and conformal cooling, on the microstructural evolution and mechanical properties of permanent mold-cast AA2024. Mechanical vibrations were applied during solidification in the frequency range of 15–45 Hz and acceleration of 0.5–1.5 g. Process parameters, including pouring temperature, die temperature, vibration frequency, and acceleration, were optimized using an L9 orthogonal array based on the Taguchi method. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed to determine the significance of the aforementioned process parameters. In addition, the alloy’s microstructure was observed through a microscope, which revealed a transition from dendritic to non-dendritic microstructure due to dynamic solidification. The average grain size of the alloy was significantly reduced by 40.9%. Moreover, the values of hardness and Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS) of the alloy were improved by 13.5% and 10.6%, respectively. Optimal results were obtained at a pouring temperature of 750 °C, die temperature of 150 °C, frequency of 45 Hz, and acceleration of 1.0 g. Moreover, uncertainty analysis for all three responses was also performed.
Keywords: permanent mold casting; AA2024; mechanical vibration; dynamic solidification; conformal cooling; microstructure; grain refinement permanent mold casting; AA2024; mechanical vibration; dynamic solidification; conformal cooling; microstructure; grain refinement
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MDPI and ACS Style

Khan, M.W.A.; Ahmad, R.; Bukhari, S.M.A.; Sultan, M.; Husnain, N.; Anwar, M.T.; Bin Nooman, U.; Raza, H.; Latif, A.; Ahmad, S.; et al. Influence of Vibration-Assisted Dynamic Solidification on Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Permanent Mold Cast Aluminum Alloy 2024 with Conformal Cooling. J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2025, 9, 416. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp9120416

AMA Style

Khan MWA, Ahmad R, Bukhari SMA, Sultan M, Husnain N, Anwar MT, Bin Nooman U, Raza H, Latif A, Ahmad S, et al. Influence of Vibration-Assisted Dynamic Solidification on Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Permanent Mold Cast Aluminum Alloy 2024 with Conformal Cooling. Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing. 2025; 9(12):416. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp9120416

Chicago/Turabian Style

Khan, Muhammad Waqas Ali, Rauf Ahmad, Syed Masood Arif Bukhari, Muhammad Sultan, Naveed Husnain, Muhammad Tuoqeer Anwar, Umer Bin Nooman, Hassan Raza, Abid Latif, Sajjad Ahmad, and et al. 2025. "Influence of Vibration-Assisted Dynamic Solidification on Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Permanent Mold Cast Aluminum Alloy 2024 with Conformal Cooling" Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing 9, no. 12: 416. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp9120416

APA Style

Khan, M. W. A., Ahmad, R., Bukhari, S. M. A., Sultan, M., Husnain, N., Anwar, M. T., Bin Nooman, U., Raza, H., Latif, A., Ahmad, S., & Bukhari, K. H. (2025). Influence of Vibration-Assisted Dynamic Solidification on Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Permanent Mold Cast Aluminum Alloy 2024 with Conformal Cooling. Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing, 9(12), 416. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp9120416

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