Assessment of Local Rice Processing, Packaging and Storage Among Rice Processors in Southwestern Nigeria, West Africa ^†

Abstract

Among the factors threatening food security in Nigeria are poor access to credit facilities, the high cost of inputs, and poor processing and storage. Cereals and grains are among the staple food crops highly consumed by Nigerians. In this study, multi-stage sampling procedure was used to select 1200 registered rice processors from Agricultural Development Programme zones in the Nigerian states of Lagos, Oyo, Ogun, Ondo, Osun, and Ekiti, and a structured questionnaire was used to obtain data on primary, secondary, and tertiary postharvest operations. The data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and Pearson Product Moment Correlation. The results showed that the majority (65.1%) of the respondents were male, 54.5% were 30–60 years old, 86.9% were married, 96.3% had been formally educated, and 99.9% processed, 71.5% packaged, and 79.4% stored more than 5001 kg of rice monthly. The majority (85.9%) of the respondents had no knowledge of rice moisture content and still used local means of rice processing, while 14.1% of the respondents used modern means of rice processing. We concluded that stored local rice was still subject to more wastage, spoilage, and losses due to the poor processing, packaging, and storage methods used in the study area. We recommend the adoption of modern and suitable rice technologies for processing, packaging, and storage. Furthermore, credit facilities should be made available, and inputs should be subsidized for rice farmers and processors.

1. Introduction

The second Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) highlights the significance of ensuring access to food and achieving food security, aiming to eliminate hunger by 2030 [1]. Enhancing the production of locally grown cereals and grains is a key strategy for addressing hunger. Rice (Oryza sativa) serves as a primary food source for over half of the global population and stands as one of the most vital commercial crops, with an annual global yield of approximately 700 million tons. It is cultivated in at least 114 countries, with China and India contributing 50% of the total production [2], Nigeria’s rice sub-sector currently faces challenges, including weak and inefficient producer–market linkages and suboptimal rice quality. In parts of Southwestern Nigeria, paddy rice is predominantly harvested manually using traditional tools like sickles, knives, scythes, and cutters, whereas in developed nations, almost all rice harvesting is mechanized through combine harvesters [3].

Nigeria has a dynamic rice-farming sector, employing various techniques to process harvested paddy into finished rice. The process begins with threshing, which separates the grain from the straw, followed by milling, which removes the husk and bran layers, leaving the white endosperm. Polishing is then carried out to eliminate any residual bran layers and enhance the rice’s appearance. After being polished, the rice is sorted into grades based on size, shape, and color. Broken rice, a by-product of milling, is separated and processed differently. The rice supply chain in Nigeria is crucial for linking farmers with millers and processors, a process focusing on improving product quality, minimizing waste, and reducing processing time [4,5]. Timing and harvesting methods are critical factors affecting rice production. Significant losses can occur if harvesting is not conducted when the paddies are appropriately mature and moist. Premature harvesting when rice has a high moisture content increases drying costs, promotes mold growth and insect infestation, and leads to high breakage rates and low milling yields [6]. A study on Southeastern Nigeria revealed that delays in harvesting increased paddy losses by 67% due to scattering, rising from 1.5% to 2.5%. Similarly, a study from India reported a 10.3% rise in paddy-harvesting losses, increasing from 1.74% to 1.92%, attributed to delayed harvesting and insufficient harvesting equipment [7]. In Southwestern Nigeria, threshing is primarily performed manually, although mechanical threshing is employed on large, irrigated farms. Farmers often beat the harvested straw against metal drums, cemented vessels, or tree trunks using wooden sticks. After threshing, cleaning is carried out to separate whole grains from broken grains and foreign materials like straw, stones, sand, chaff, and weed seeds. Winnowing is the most common cleaning method in developing countries, though screening or sifting, conducted manually or mechanically, is also prevalent. [8], increases in rice production can enhance farmers’ income, reduce poverty, and improve living standards. However, in Nigeria, rice production and processing are hindered by numerous challenges, with limited access to agricultural credit being a significant factor [9].

2. Statement of the Research Problem

Cereal and grain production in Nigeria is hindered by factors such as limited access to credit facilities, high input costs, and inadequate processing, packaging, and storage. These crops are staple foods for most Nigerians, yet postharvest grain losses (PHGLs) and quality losses (PGQLs) remain substantial. Efforts to mitigate these losses and improve production have been constrained by the absence of simple, cost-effective, and adaptable postharvest management practices and technologies [3]. In Southwestern Nigeria, rice processing is hindered by issues such as a reliance on traditional threshing methods, which result in significant husk breakage. The uneven distribution of heat during parboiling, due to rudimentary handling techniques, further exacerbates quality issues. The inadequate drying methods practiced by local farmers also lead to milling inefficiencies and increased rice breakage. These challenges underscore the need for a study to evaluate local rice-processing, -packaging, and storage practices among rice processors in Southwestern Nigeria, West Africa [10].

3. Research Objectives

• Describe the socio-economic characteristics of local rice processors in the study area.
• Assess the processing, packaging, and storage methods adopted by rice processors in the study area.
• Identify the constraints faced by rice processors during rice processing, packaging, and storage in the study area.

4. Methodology

4.1. Study Area

This study was conducted in the Southwestern geopolitical zone of Nigeria, encompassing the states of Oyo, Ogun, Osun, Ondo, Ekiti, and Lagos. This zone, located between latitudes 5° N and 9° N, spans an area of 114,271 square kilometers, accounting for 12% of the nation’s total land area. According to the 2006 Census, the region’s population was 21,974,678 [11]. The zone comprises four distinct sub-ecologies: swamp, mangrove forests, moist and dry lowland forests, and derived savannah. The states of Lagos, Ondo, and Ogun fall within the tropical rainforest zone, which includes swamp forests along the coastal areas, while parts of Osun, Oyo, and Ekiti lie in the derived savannah [12]. The climate is equatorial, featuring distinct wet and dry seasons. The rainy season spans up to nine months, with peaks in July and September. Annual rainfall averages between 2600 mm and 2900 mm in the southern coastal areas, such as the states of Lagos and Ogun, with a zonal mean of 480 mm. During the dry season, average monthly temperatures range from 18 °C to 24 °C. Agriculture remains the primary livelihood in this zone, characterized by arable cropping systems involving rice, maize, millet, yam, and cassava, alongside common tree crops such as cocoa, oil palm, cashew, and kolanut. Both small- and large-scale rice farmers operate in the zone, engaging in rice processing, packaging, storage, and sales.

4.2. Data Collection Method

The procedure for data collection adhered to the ethical guidelines for human research with approval from Tai Solarin University of Education Human Research Ethics Committee (Approval No. TASUED-HREC/2023/045). Informed content was obtained from all respondents, ensuring their voluntary participation and confidentiality. Data collection involved direct engagement with rice farmers, processors, and preservers through field reconnaissance surveys, personal observations, and structured questionnaires. A total of 1200 questionnaires were randomly distributed to rice processors across the six states covered in the study.

4.3. Sampling Procedure and Data Analysis Method

A multi-stage sampling procedure was adopted to select the study sample, chosen for its effectiveness in simplifying data collection across large and geographically dispersed populations while enabling probability sampling without requiring a complete sampling frame. The process involved five stages: Firstly, the six southwestern states, namely, Ogun, Oyo, Ondo, Osun, Ekiti, and Lagos, were purposively selected due to their prominence in rice processing [12]. Secondly, registered rice processors in the extension blocks of these states were identified, with assistance from the Agricultural Development Programme (ADP) and relevant official reports. Thirdly, 10% of the identified extension blocks were randomly selected using a random sampling technique. Fourthly, another 10% of the extension cells within the selected blocks were also randomly sampled. Fifthly, a minimum of 200 registered rice processors were randomly selected from each of the six states, culminating in a total sample size of 1200 respondents. We categorized local rice processing, packaging, and storage methods based on the pooled mean scores of respondents, distinguishing between manual and mechanical approaches. Descriptive statistics such as frequency counts, percentages, means, and standard deviations were used to describe the respondents’ socio-economic characteristics.

5. Results

Table 1. Socio-economic characteristics of the rice processors (n = 1200).

Variables	Frequency	Percentage	Mean	SD
Age (years)
<30	221	18.4	30	10
31–40	343	28.6
41–50	480	40.0
51–60	156	13.0
Sex
Male	781	65.1
Female	419	34.9
Marital status
Single	110	9.2
Married	1043	86.9
Divorced	30	2.5
Widowed	17	1.4
Education (years)
No Formal Education	44	3.7	7	3
1–6	900	75.0
7–12	216	18.0
>13	40	3.3
Household size (persons)
0–4	58	4. 8	13	5
5–9	192	16.0
>10	950	79.2
Processing experience (years)
1–5 yrs	48	4.0	14	10
6–10 yrs	200	16.7
>10 yrs	952	79.3
Areas of Specialization
Rice Processing Only	320	26.7
Rice Packaging and Storage	300	25.0
Rice Storage Only	305	25.4
All of the above	275	22.9
Processed Rice Output (kg)			5001	2000
<3000	228	19.0
3001–6000	672	56.0
6001–9000	180	15.0
>9001	120	10.0
Monthly Income (NGN)			55,000	20,000
<20,000	50	4.2
20,000–40,000	60	5.0
40,001–60,000	460	38.3
60,001–80,000	360	30.0
>80,001	270	22.5
Member of a Cooperative
Yes	965	80.4
No	235	19.6

Source: Field Survey, 2023.

reveals that the rice processors in the region are predominantly male (65.1%), with females accounting for 34.9%. Regarding marital status, 86.9% were married, 9.2% were single, 2.5% were divorced, and 1.4% were widowed. The average age of the respondents was 30 years, the average education level was 7 years, the average household size was 13 persons, and the average monthly income was NGN 55,000, and the respondents’ processed rice output averaged 5001 kg. Notably, 79.3% had over ten years of experience in rice processing, and 80.4% were members of cooperative societies.

Table 2. Processing, packaging, and storage methods adopted by rice processors.

Processing Methods	Manual (%)	Mechanical (%)
Threshing	82.5	17.5
Parboiling	83.3	16.7
Milling	83.3	16.7
Drying	83.3	16.7
Packaging	70.8	29.2
Storage	83.3	16.7
Spoilage	13.6	3.0
Wastage	20.4	3.5
Losses	13.0	3.0
Income reduction	30.5	3.5
Profit	22.5	87.0

Source: Field survey, 2023.

shows that the majority of rice processors employed manual techniques for threshing (82.5%), parboiling (83.3%), milling (83.3%), sun-drying (83.3%), packaging (70.8%), and storage (83.3%), leading to corresponding spoilage (13.6%), wastage (20.4%), losses (13.0%), reduced income (30.5%), and profit (22.5%), while few rice processors employed mechanical methods.

Table 3. Distribution and ranking of major constraints faced by rice processors.

Items	Mean	Rank
Lack of modern equipment	1.901	1st
High cost of labor	1.860	2nd
High cost of inputs	1.800	3rd
Inadequate harvesting equipment	1.750	4th
Poor processing equipment	1.745	5th
Poor packaging equipment	1.741	6th
Poor storage equipment	1.735	7th
Poor marketing system	1.715	8th
Government policy	1.700	9th
Limited farmland	1.659	10th
Poor quality of extension services	1.640	11th
Late disbursement of loans	1.605	12th
Underfunding	1.600	13th
Lack of improved seeds	1.590	14th

Source: Field survey, 2023 Note: Means ≥ 1.4 severe, mild, and not a constraint.

shows the major constraints faced by rice processors, among which a lack of modern equipment ranked first, high labor costs ranked second, high input costs ranked third, inadequate harvesting tools occupied the fourth spot, poor processing ranked fifth, poor packaging ranked sixth, and poor storage equipment ranked seventh.

6. Discussion

In the light of the results obtained, it can be seen that rice farmers and processors with higher education and smaller household size were able to enjoy increased income. These results corroborate the findings reported [13], who identified factors such as income, education, farm size, household size, experience, and cooperative membership as significant drivers of food security among rice farmers and processors. Similarly, [14] highlighted a positive relationship between socio-economic characteristics and the performance of rice farmers and processors in Nigeria.

Regarding methods of processing rice by farmers and processors, these findings align with those reported [5], who noted that a reliance on manual methods for rice processing often results in food spoilage, waste, and losses, stressing the need for modern alternatives. This trend mirrors the observations made [6], who reported similar packaging practices among rice farmers and processors in Northern Nigeria. These findings are consistent with those reported [15], which emphasized the importance of transitioning to modern storage methods to minimize food spoilage and waste. This demonstrates the decreased profitability of mechanical methods, in line with the findings of [10] who emphasized the role of modern technologies in boosting food production and security.

The results obtained on the constraints align with the finding of [8] who highlighted similar barriers, such as inadequate technologies, late loan disbursement, and limited financial support. [16] reported that lack of fund to purchase modern rice equipment is a major constraint to local rice farmers and processors. [17] also revealed that poor processing, packaging and storage equipment contribute greatly to the rice losses and wastages during production process.

7. Conclusions

We concluded that local rice storage in the study area continued to be hindered by significant waste, spoilage, losses, and income reduction due to inadequate processing, packaging, and storage methods. To enhance local rice production and minimize these issues, we recommend that modern technologies appropriate for rice processing, packaging, and storage, alongside credit facilities and inputs, should be made available for rice farmers and processors. The techniques used in rice farming and processing in Nigeria remain vital to its rice industry’s overall success. With governmental support and the implementation of innovative practices, rice processing, packaging, and storage in Southwestern Nigeria can become more efficient and profitable.