Homo smartphonus: Psychological Aspects of Smartphone Use—A Literature Review

Abstract

The increasing prevalence of smartphone use has raised concerns about its impact on human psychological functioning. This literature review provides a comprehensive overview of the psychological dimensions influenced by smartphone use, spanning health psychology, individual differences, social psychology, and cognitive functioning. The review draws on findings from numerous studies, primarily conducted in highly developed Western and Asian countries, where cultural factors may influence usage patterns and psychological outcomes. Key limitations in the current body of research include geographical biases and methodological challenges such as sample homogeneity and reliance on self-report measures. Evidence suggests that excessive smartphone use can lead to addiction and is associated with negative psychological and health consequences. The review also highlights how individual differences—such as personality traits, age, and gender—affect smartphone usage. Social implications, both positive (e.g., increased connectivity) and negative (e.g., interpersonal conflict), are explored in depth. Cognitive effects are considered, particularly in relation to attention and memory, where findings suggest potential impairments in sustained focus and information retention. While the literature often emphasizes risks, this review also points to the need for further exploration of the potential benefits of smartphone use. In summary, the review offers valuable insights into the complex psychological effects of smartphones and underscores the importance of future research to better understand their nuanced impact on well-being.

1. Introduction

From its inception, mobile phones were intended to serve a simple function similar to that of traditional landline phones [1]. The smartphone, which emerged in 1992 [2], was meant to be an advanced version of the phone and a combination of it with a portable computer, but the direction and speed of its evolution surprised many technological visionaries. The global smartphone penetration rate was estimated at 67 percent in 2021 [3]. This is a literature review on a topic relevant to almost every person living in industrialized parts of the world. This paper presents a narrative overview of the psychological literature on smartphone use rather than a systematic review or meta-analysis. Reviews of this type are commonly used in psychology to summarize large bodies of evidence on topics such as addiction, well-being, or digital media and serve to map current knowledge and guide future research.

Over half of humanity continuously and repeatedly uses a device that emerged relatively recently. What is the significant impact of this on human psychological functioning? Despite numerous studies in this field, a comprehensive compilation on this topic remains unknown. In this article, we discuss the psychological aspects influenced by smartphone usage, encompassing a wide range of psychology domains. Therefore, we explore psychological research related to smartphone use in four key domains: (a) health psychology and addictions, (b) individual differences in psychology, (c) selected areas of social psychology, and (d) cognitive functioning of smartphone users. However, this work will not address topics unrelated to psychological functioning, such as physiological issues (e.g., neck pain, vision problems) associated with continuous smartphone use.

2. Psychological Health and Addiction in the Context of Smartphone Use

2.1. Smartphone Addiction

The topic of the impact of smartphones on human health is extensive and primarily focuses on the negative aspects of smartphone use. Research in this area primarily revolves around smartphone addiction and its consequences. Addictive and excessive smartphone use can be seen as a threat to its users [4,5,6,7]. This phenomenon lacks a single name [8] and can be referred to as addiction [9,10], overuse [11], or problematic use [12,13].

Smartphone addiction is increasing worldwide, with addiction rates ranging from 18 to 36 percent of the population [14]. Communication applications, online gaming, and social media are integral parts of smartphones, which further complicates the conceptualization of this phenomenon [15,16,17]. However, smartphone overuse is most commonly referred to as behavioral addiction due to its shared characteristics with other similar addictions, such as a strong desire to engage in the behavior, increased tolerance, withdrawal symptoms, increased absorption in the behavior, and continued engagement despite negative consequences [17]. Smartphone addiction is similar to internet addiction [18,19,20] and can be considered as coexisting with or a specific subtype of internet addiction [10]. However, symptoms of smartphone addiction may differ from those of internet addiction or problematic cellular phone use [21].

Several scales have been developed to measure smartphone addiction [18,21,22,23]. These scales highlight many dimensions of addictive behaviors. Daily-life disturbance and functional impairment involve negative social, academic, and work-related outcomes associated with smartphone use and neglect of other activities [18,21]. These outcomes include the inability to stop thinking about the smartphone, constantly checking the smartphone, becoming irritable when interrupted while using the smartphone, lack of focus and concentration, feeling anxious, missing planned work, and productivity loss [18,21,22,24]. Conversely, using a smartphone involves a sense of security, excitement, and enjoyment and serves as a means to alleviate stress, exhaustion, and anxiety [18] and to feel better [24]. Importantly, for many people, compulsive use and excessive time spent on smartphones persist despite being aware of the negative consequences [18,21,24]. Individuals may experience a strong urge to resume smartphone use immediately after stopping [18]. These aspects underscore the addictive nature of smartphone usage and the difficulty individuals face in controlling their smartphone use even when they are aware of its detrimental effects.

2.2. Smartphone Use and Psychological Well-Being

Frequent smartphone use has a negative impact on psychological well-being. Frequent use of mobile phones is associated with experiencing stress [25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34,35,36]. Researchers have different perspectives on the direction of this relationship. On one hand, stress is perceived as a consequence of excessive smartphone use [26,35], while on the other hand, smartphone use is seen as a coping strategy for stress [36,37].

Even more problematic, smartphone use can be associated with depression [38,39,40,41,42,43]. As with stress, the direction of this relationship is not conclusively established. Excessive smartphone use may lead to depression [38], but smartphone use in a social context may also provide subjective benefits to individuals with depression and low mood [44,45]. Simultaneously, using a smartphone as a coping strategy for negative emotions may induce and exacerbate depressive symptoms [46,47].

Lastly, significant correlations between smartphone usage and anxiety have been documented in the literature [48,49,50], encompassing both social anxiety [51,52,53] and generalized anxiety [54,55]. The origins of this connection are multifaceted. For instance, anxiety may arise when access to a smartphone is unavailable, a phenomenon known as “nomophobia” [56,57]. Additionally, the fear of missing out, often abbreviated as “FoMo,” plays a role in this context [58]. FoMo represents a potent apprehension individuals experience when facing the prospect of missing crucial information and rewards, particularly within online and social media contexts [59,60]. Individuals characterized by higher levels of FoMo tend to perceive smartphone unavailability more negatively [61].

Conversely, the utilization of smartphones can also function as a coping mechanism to alleviate anxiety and provide psychological solace to users [47]. Engaging with a smartphone can mitigate tension and anxiety stemming from a lack of substantial information on a given topic, granting unrestricted access to information and facilitating communication with others [62,63]. However, it is important to acknowledge that the enduring implications of such behavior might prove detrimental to users’ psychological well-being [47].

Research has shown that smartphones can adversely affect both sleep quality and duration [64,65,66,67]. The intense screen illumination emitted by smartphones can disrupt the secretion of melatonin, thereby postponing the brain’s transition into sleep mode [68,69]. Engaging with a smartphone immediately before bedtime has been linked to diminished sleep quality and duration [70,71,72,73], consequently giving rise to significant psychopathology [73]. This, in turn, can contribute to a variety of conditions, including stress, anxiety, and depression [67].

2.3. Smartphone Use and Body Image

Applications on smartphones facilitate the control and regulation of both mental and physical health, such as measuring distance traveled, checking the nutritional composition of food products, reminding users to consume an adequate amount of fluids, monitoring menstrual cycles, recording patient medical data, and offering training programs for relaxation and mindfulness. In this context, smartphones can enhance motivation for lifestyle changes [74,75] and are regarded as effective tools in maintaining health [76,77,78,79]. The socializing functions of smartphones may be related to users’ perception of their own body image [80]. The formation of body image is associated with social media activity and self-worth [81,82,83,84]. Applications that impact body image are those that allow users to publish photos and browse galleries of other users, such as Facebook and particularly Instagram [81], due to the nature of the content posted. This application allows users to post photos and videos of visited places or consumed meals, creating a kind of memory archive [85]. Motivations for using Instagram include social and psychological incentives, such as engaging in social interactions, self-expression, escapism, observing other users, and archiving [86]. Instagram has become a space where individuals can be admired and gain the approval of other users, as measured by the number of “likes” received on their posted content [87]. The influence of negative social comparisons on well-being [88], self-worth [89,90], and body satisfaction among Instagram users is evident [91,92].

2.4. Future Research and Doubts

The impact of smartphones on human well-being constitutes an expansive and profoundly significant area of study, demanding further exploration. Additional research is essential to delve into the specific functions that smartphones serve among individuals who exhibit addiction or frequent dependency on them. For instance, within the realm of addiction, it proves intriguing to investigate whether other addictive behaviors are linked to constant information seeking, the entertainment mechanisms inherent in smartphone functionalities, or continual interpersonal communication [93]. These primary functions are likely to wield a more pronounced influence on the evolution of smartphone addiction compared to the social roles of smartphones [94].

Yet, a scholarly debate persists regarding the classification of smartphone addiction as a behavioral addiction. Some contend that such categorization might oversimplify the matter and potentially lead to ineffective therapeutic interventions [95,96]. An alternate perspective proposes interpreting excessive smartphone usage within the context of compensatory behaviors [96,97,98,99,100,101]. In this context, the adoption of novel technologies by younger generations can also be seen as a manifestation of a novel functioning style and may not necessarily be inherently tied to addictive tendencies [102,103]. Comprehensive investigation is imperative to cast more light on the intricate interplay between smartphone usage, addiction, and coping behaviors.

Further lines of inquiry should also be developed concerning the well-being impact of smartphones. For instance, the domain of body image warrants exploration, wherein smartphone applications (enabling step tracking, nutritional analysis of food products, etc.) can bolster motivation for lifestyle improvements [74,75], being deemed effective tools for health maintenance [76,77,78,79]. Conversely, platforms like Instagram provide a space where individuals can receive admiration and endorsement from peers, as evidenced by the tally of “likes” garnered on their posts [82,83], albeit exerting negative influence through social comparisons on well-being [88], self-worth [89,90], and body satisfaction among Instagram users [91,92].

3. Psychology of Individual Differences in Smartphone Users

The widespread availability of smartphones has garnered significant interest from researchers aiming to understand the individual attributes influencing the manner and frequency of smartphone use. Research has primarily focused on linking personality traits from the Big Five framework—conscientiousness, agreeableness, extraversion, neuroticism, and openness [104]—to patterns of smartphone usage [105,106,107,108,109,110]. Additionally, studies have explored other personality traits, such as narcissism and locus of control [111,112,113]. The literature also highlights demographic disparities among smartphone users, considering factors such as age, gender, and socioeconomic status [114,115].

3.1. Association Between Smartphone Usage and Neuroticism/Emotional Stability

Neuroticism, often referred to as emotional instability, has been identified as a factor associated with problematic smartphone use. Elevated scores on the neuroticism scale correlate with an increased likelihood of engaging in addictive behaviors related to smartphone use [106,110]. Notably, some studies suggest that the relationship between neuroticism and problematic smartphone use is significant primarily among individuals born in the 1980s and later [106]. However, there are contradictory findings presented by Stachl et al. [116].

Researchers highlight that this association between the personality trait of neuroticism and excessive technology usage is particularly concerning given the propensity of neurotic individuals to experience mood disorders and substance addiction, which can have unfavorable clinical ramifications [10]. Roberts et al. [110] propose that individuals with a neurotic inclination may employ smartphones as a means of distraction and mood regulation. These findings underscore the notion that problematic mobile phone use may serve as a maladaptive coping mechanism for individuals with personality-based inclinations towards various forms of addiction [105,110].

3.2. Association Between Smartphone Usage and Extraversion

A higher level of extraversion among smartphone users has been found to predict more frequent ownership of smartphones [117], increased smartphone usage [116], and the presence of addictive behaviors towards smartphones [110]. Researchers note that extraverts tend to use the communication functions of smartphones, such as messaging, more often, which provides them with gratification and increases the likelihood of addiction [117]. Individuals with these characteristics also tend to use applications that allow them to take and share photos more frequently than others [116].

However, the relationship between problematic mobile phone use and the level of extraversion is not clearly established. Some studies report no such association [105,118]. This phenomenon can be explained by a theory suggesting that extraverted individuals use the social functions of smartphones in a normative way, meaning their frequency of use is not increased, which may indicate the presence of resources that prevent excessive use [105].

3.3. Association Between Smartphone Usage and Conscientiousness

A high negative correlation has been found between conscientiousness scores and problematic smartphone use, suggesting that individuals with traits such as reliability and organization are less likely to experience smartphone dependency [105,106,119]. However, some studies report no such correlation [10]. Frequency of phone use is high among individuals with high conscientiousness scores [45], but the duration of use is negatively associated with conscientiousness. This may be due to the nature of applications used by conscientious users [12]. High-conscientiousness individuals also tend to avoid online shopping applications [45,120] and entertainment applications such as online games [116]. These findings align with previous research indicating less engagement in procrastinatory behaviors facilitated by smartphones among conscientious individuals [121,122].

3.4. Association Between Smartphone Usage and Openness and Agreeableness

The relationship between smartphone usage and the traits of agreeableness and openness is ambiguous. Some researchers argue that these traits do not predict excessive smartphone use, while others find a negative link between these traits and problematic phone usage [10,105]. No distinct patterns have emerged regarding the usage of specific applications based on levels of openness [116]. However, agreeableness is associated with more frequent use of transportation-related applications [116] and a preference for verbal communication (calls) over written communication (SMS) [117].

3.5. Association Between Smartphone Usage and Narcissism

Research suggests a positive association between narcissistic traits and problematic mobile phone use [10,111,112]. Higher levels of narcissism are also linked to longer smartphone usage, though not necessarily addiction [12]. Individuals with these traits also use social media applications more frequently [123]. Morf and Rhodewalt’s [124] model suggests that narcissistic individuals seek to maintain a high self-evaluation through self-focused and exhibitionistic behaviors facilitated by social media. Thus, narcissistic individuals tend to publish photos on social media more frequently for self-promotion and update their self-presentational statuses more often [123,125,126,127,128,129,130]. A notable example is the phenomenon of taking selfies, which are self-portraits (often with others) taken with smartphone cameras held at arm’s length or aimed at a mirror [126]. Many studies link taking and posting selfies, known as selfie-related behavior (SRB), with higher levels of narcissism [126,131,132,133,134,135,136,137,138,139].

3.6. Sense of Control and Impulsivity

Many researchers have explored the impact of users’ sense of control and impulsivity on smartphone-related behaviors. Findings suggest a negative correlation between perceived control and smartphone addiction and a positive correlation between impulsivity and smartphone addiction [140,141,142]. This is consistent with studies on perceived control and addictions in general [110]. Researchers also suggest that users with an external locus of control may contribute to problematic phone use due to low self-control and increased susceptibility to external influences [37].

3.7. Age

Due to the availability of research participants, studies on smartphones predominantly involve young individuals [143,144]. This focus is justified because there is a negative correlation between age and both the frequency of smartphone use and problematic use, with younger people using smartphones more frequently and for longer durations [10,12,145]. However, age boundaries are not precisely defined and depend on the socio-demographic characteristics of the study participants [45]. Younger age is also associated with a higher likelihood of owning a smartphone [117]. This phenomenon may be related to younger people’s preference for new technologies [12] and greater impulse control among older individuals [27]. Zhitomirsky-Geffet and Blau [106] proposed a non-linear relationship between age and smartphone addiction, identifying individuals born between 1980 and 1995 as the most vulnerable to addiction compared to those born before 1980 or after 1995. The researchers suggest that this vulnerability may be due to the relative stability of attitudes towards technology among older and younger individuals, compared to the unstable attitudes of those born between 1980 and 1995, who were introduced to smartphones during their formative years, potentially affecting their approach to smartphone use [106].

Older individuals use smartphones less frequently for sending messages, browsing the internet, and listening to music compared to younger individuals [117]. However, communication through SMS and email [106] and making phone calls [116] remain the most common uses among older individuals.

3.8. Gender

Some researchers suggest that women are more susceptible to problematic smartphone use [45,146,147,148]. These differences may be explained by the different purposes for which each gender uses smartphones. Individuals who use phones for social purposes may become addicted more quickly than those who use phones for other functions [27]. Therefore, women, who use phones more frequently for socialization, may be at a higher risk of developing addictive behaviors towards smartphones [45]. However, some studies have found no association between gender and problematic smartphone use [10,106], which researchers attribute to possible cultural differences between the research groups studied and those described in the literature.

4. Social and Romantic Relationships of Smartphone Users

Smartphones are powerful communication tools, facilitated by applications like Messenger and WhatsApp, which allow for swift connections with others. Globally, over 2.5 billion people use messaging apps for instant communication [149,150,151]. Using smartphones for communication positively impacts an individual’s social capital [152,153,154,155,156,157]. While this trend is generally positive, there is growing concern that online social interactions are increasingly replacing face-to-face engagements. Frequent use of social media via smartphones also raises the likelihood of developing problematic usage patterns [158]. Thus, it is important to recognize that smartphones have both positive and negative effects on both offline and online relationships [159,160,161,162,163,164,165,166,167].

4.1. Social Relationships

Firstly, some aspects are relatively self-evident and may not require extensive justification. Individuals often use smartphones for communication when they feel lonely or when their family and friends are physically distant [24]. Smartphones also facilitate social interactions for those who struggle with real-life engagements, such as extremely shy individuals or those who are socially isolated [168,169]. Research shows that smartphone owners often feel a greater sense of security. Experts suggest that smartphones can serve as virtual “security blankets,” providing psychological comfort and reducing stress associated with interpersonal interactions [170,171]. Individuals with access to their smartphones report fewer physical and psychological symptoms of social exclusion [171], even if they are not actively using their devices. They can receive social support, even if only in the virtual realm [159]. For those with social anxiety, smartphones offer a form of companionship, helping them manage social situations by engaging in virtual relationships and avoiding face-to-face interactions that might trigger anxiety symptoms.

On the other hand, smartphone use during interpersonal interactions can diminish the quality of those interactions. The use of smartphones during face-to-face interactions is widespread, with individuals often prioritizing their phones over engaging with others [159,172,173]. The mere presence of a smartphone during these interactions negatively affects feelings of closeness, connection, and perceived relationship quality [161]. Conversations are rated as less satisfactory when at least one participant has their phone on the table or holds it during the conversation. This results in less empathetic attention being perceived from the other person [159]. Moreover, the presence of a phone during a social gathering can lead to reduced evaluations of friends [160].

This phenomenon of using a phone to the detriment of interpersonal interactions has been termed “phubbing,” a portmanteau of “phone” and “snubbing” [163]. Phubbing describes the act of focusing on a smartphone while ignoring the person one could be engaging with [163]. Those who engage in phubbing often exhibit addictive smartphone usage tendencies [174,175]. Phubbing can lead to conflicts in close relationships, similar to traditional forms of social exclusion. It threatens the fulfillment of needs and the benefits of belonging to a social group [176,177]. This negatively impacts partners’ psychological comfort and sense of security within the relationship. In romantic relationships, conflicts can arise due to perceived lack of intimacy and engagement when one partner diverts their attention to technology during interactions, leading to a decline in perceived relationship satisfaction [177,178].

In addition to interpersonal tensions in face-to-face contexts, online platforms like YouTube, Instagram, or TikTok also shape emerging relational patterns. These include parasocial relationships with influencers, especially among adolescents and young adults, as well as exposure to hate speech and online aggression [179,180], which can deteriorate social trust and amplify polarization

Recent work has also drawn attention to the role of moral and social emotions in shaping interactions on digital platforms. Emotions such as moral outrage, indignation, or feeling offended can spread rapidly through online networks, amplifying conflictual or polarized dynamics [181,182]. While not the main focus of this review, such affective contagion mechanisms highlight the need for further psychological research into how smartphones mediate not only individual behavior but also collective emotional climates. As Mihailov [183] suggest, digital platforms may function as “indignation machines”, reinforcing moral-emotional reactivity in ways that influence social cohesion, reputation, and intergroup attitudes.

4.2. Romantic Relationships

An associated domain linked to smartphone usage is the formation of romantic relationships. It is estimated that approximately 40 percent of relationships in Western countries begin online [184] with a substantial portion remaining exclusively online for extended periods, up to 23 percent [185]. While the internet plays a pivotal role in this phenomenon, smartphones are crucial tools without which such relationships would face significant challenges. For example, the widely recognized dating app Tinder, which is predominantly accessible through smartphones, is commonly used to seek romantic or sexual partners [186]. Initially, Tinder was primarily seen as a platform for facilitating short-term sexual encounters [187,188,189]. However, it has evolved to also serve as a tool for establishing long-term relationships [190], driven by factors such as time investment and curiosity [187,188,189].

Personality factors are correlated with Tinder usage, showing a connection between higher levels of extraversion and openness to experience and engagement with the platform [188]. These traits are also related to the “Dark Tetrad” of personality traits, including Machiavellianism, narcissism, and psychopathy [191]. Notably, psychopathy has been particularly associated with using Tinder for purely sexual relationships [192].

Partners and individuals engaged in flirting often use smartphones for communication, even substituting for sexual behaviors. A pertinent example of this is “sexting”, defined as the “act of sharing sexually suggestive content, often in the form of texts or images, through the Internet or smartphones” [193,194]. The prevalence of sexting has surged with the increased accessibility of online sexual content and the widespread use of smartphones, particularly among adolescents [195,196,197]. Sexting practices among young individuals “mirror the trends in smartphone ownership and are intrinsically linked to the portable and private nature of smartphones” [197].

5. Smartphones and Cognitive Process

Smartphones also exert an influence on cognitive processes, including their impact on cognitive facets such as attention and memory [198,199].

5.1. Attention and Multitasking

Initial investigations into attention focused on its dynamics within the context of mobile phone use during tasks involving cognitive engagement [200,201]. It is posited that using a phone in such scenarios detrimentally impacts attention efficiency [202,203,204,205,206,207,208,209,210,211,212,213], particularly bearing negative consequences for driving [214,215,216,217,218,219]. Partial attention devoted to phone conversations significantly prolongs reaction times to stimuli, which proves highly perilous for drivers facing abrupt road situations [214,215]. The decline in attentional functionality attributable to smartphone use is particularly conspicuous during academic tasks among children and young adults [220,221,222,223,224,225,226,227,228]. Results from certain studies suggest that the mere presence of smartphones in users’ immediate environment during task performance may still diminish their cognitive resources, impairing task execution [167].

Smartphones possess the capacity to disturb attention without any deliberate action, as phone owners, habitually anticipating signals from social media, news sources, or messaging apps, have developed a mechanism for checking new notifications, independent of any cues regarding their actual appearance, termed “the checking habit” [214]. Consequently, users’ attention becomes divided between the ongoing task and vigilance toward anticipated smartphone activity. The arrival of a smartphone notification, accompanied by screen illumination, vibrations, and/or sound, detrimentally influences attentional performance [229,230,231,232]. The appearance of a notification, coupled with the user’s focus on it, hampers task performance quality, even in the absence of a tangible reaction (such as checking the phone screen or answering a call; [231,232]). Researchers posit that this is due to the indirect influence of the notification, which triggers thoughts unrelated to the task and endures longer than the actual notification duration [231]. Mastering this phenomenon proves challenging, as completely deactivating notifications induces users to experience the fear of missing out and anxiety [233].

Consistent research underscores an adverse link between smartphone use and attentional functioning [231]. However, when considering multitasking, the results appear more diverse [234]. Multitasking entails engaging in multiple activities or tasks concurrently [235]. Physical multitasking remains infeasible, but the phenomenon occurs through attentional switching within the mind [236,237]. Some studies propose that performing multiple tasks concurrently does not enhance task performance efficiency due to the substantial costs associated with attentional switching [235,237,238]. However, other studies affirm heightened information processing speed across different modalities, potentially augmenting task performance efficiency [238].

5.2. Memory

The influence of smartphones on memory processes encompasses a range of implications, including the treatment of smartphones as external memory repositories [239], the impact of navigational functions on spatial memory [240], and the effects of smartphone usage on prospective memory [241]. As smartphone usage increases, users tend to modify their information encoding strategies [242,243]. The availability of internet access, which delivers information on desired topics, prompts smartphone users to neglect the process of memorization [243]. They often recall more about where to locate specific data rather than the content itself [242,244]. Users prioritize the information they choose to remember and unconsciously or consciously opt to retain those pieces for which they might not have future access rather than attempting to memorize everything [242]. However, the mere existence of external memory storage does not always indicate heightened memory process efficiency [243]. This could be linked to the concept of cognitive laziness [245], wherein individuals tend to shift cognitive responsibility onto external objects [246,247]. Yet, definitively determining the positive or negative aspects of this phenomenon remains challenging.

Spatial memory serves as an illustrative example of this phenomenon. Smartphones, functioning as GPS navigation tools, contend with the inherent process of creating cognitive spatial representations and can diminish the use of spatial memory among users [248,249,250,251,252]. Consequently, users might neglect details related to their movements and instead rely on smartphone-generated route guidance [211].

Conversely, when smartphones are treated as archives, they can bolster memory through features like photos, notes, and calendar events [253,254]. A significant majority of device users employ digital cameras and photo albums [255], which positively impact recollections of past events, objects, or individuals [256]. Furthermore, smartphones can enhance prospective memory. Reminder apps, electronic calendars, and alarms introduce a new dimension to the world of devices, aiding in intention fulfillment [257]. Setting reminders or utilizing external memory aids can lead to more robust and interference-resistant storage of intention-related information, thereby increasing the likelihood of successful implementation. Simultaneously, smartphones serve as tools that enhance the quality of life for individuals struggling with memory issues stemming from acquired brain injuries, particularly concerning future events or responsibilities [258,259,260]. Researchers suggest that diverse smartphone applications positively reinforce users’ independence, self-assuredness, mood, well-being, and sense of dignity while also mitigating the perceived stigma associated with health conditions [244].

Thus, under the influence of smartphones, the functions of our memory undergo change, as aptly summarized by a study revealing the disparities in memory between modernized individuals in Western societies and traditional communities [261]. The observed distinctions in short- and long-term memory among these populations lend support to the argument that short-term memory assumes greater importance in contemporary societies due to technological advancements, the digital revolution, and enhanced reading abilities [261].

6. Limitations of the Research and Future Directions

The literature review presented in the paper illustrates various aspects of smartphone usage. While there is a vast amount of research on this topic, it does have certain limitations. The majority of existing studies have been conducted in highly developed Western or Asian countries, with considerably fewer studies conducted in African or South American countries [262].

Methodological limitations are also a key issue in smartphone research. On the one hand, the interdisciplinary nature of the field is an advantage; on the other hand, the diversity of applied methods makes it difficult to directly compare results across studies [7]. Many studies rely heavily on self-report measures, which are prone to biases such as inaccurate recall and social desirability effects. Experimental studies, where they exist, often lack ecological validity and may not accurately reflect real-world smartphone use. Moreover, there remains a scarcity of high-quality experimental designs capable of uncovering causal relationships, which limits our understanding of the mechanisms behind the observed associations. Future research would benefit from broader geographic diversity, longitudinal approaches, and more naturalistic data collection methods.

The authors primarily address the negative impact of smartphones on users, but it is also interesting to explore research topics that demonstrate the positive effects on human functioning. It is likely that such studies should be conducted more frequently in the near future.

This review is primarily focused on the psychological mechanisms operating at the individual level, such as personality traits, emotional regulation, and cognitive functioning. Broader socio-political issues related to smartphone use—including the spread of fake or misleading content (informational disorders)—were not included in the scope of this paper, partly due to space constraints and partly to maintain a consistent focus on internal psychological processes. However, we acknowledge that misinformation and deviant smartphone use can have serious social consequences, such as promoting prejudice or moral disengagement toward ethnic or religious minorities. These phenomena represent an important area for future interdisciplinary research, especially when examined from an intervention-oriented perspective. For example, recent studies [263,264] have explored educational strategies to counteract racial misinformation and reduce moral disengagement among adolescents, offering promising directions for applied psychosocial research.

7. General Conclusions

The smartphone stands as a remarkable device and invention, evident in its widespread adoption by nearly every individual on Earth who can afford it [3]. Smartphones offer a plethora of advantages that contribute to various aspects of modern life and its quality [265]. They have revolutionized communication by enabling instant and easy connections among friends, family, and colleagues through calls, texts, and messaging apps [266]. Additionally, smartphones can provide cognitive stimulation through puzzle apps, educational games, or memory-training tools [267]. Furthermore, smartphones provide a lifeline during emergencies, allowing users to call for help, access emergency services, and share their location with others [268,269,270]. Additionally, smartphones grant quick access to a vast repository of information through internet connectivity, facilitating staying informed on a wide range of topics. The built-in GPS and navigation apps aid users in navigating unfamiliar areas and discovering points of interest [271]. Moreover, smartphones offer diverse entertainment options, such as streaming videos, music, podcasts, games, and e-books [272]. The integrated high-quality cameras enable users to capture and share moments on-the-go, fostering creativity and personal expression [273,274]. Health and fitness apps encourage active lifestyles by helping users track exercise routines and monitor their well-being [275,276]. Importantly, smartphones serve as a support for improving the quality of life for visually impaired and blind individuals, enhancing navigation and accessibility in outdoor and indoor environments [277,278,279,280,281].

In summary, smartphones play a pivotal role in modern society by offering a multitude of positive attributes that enhance communication, knowledge-sharing, productivity, entertainment, and overall well-being. While smartphones offer numerous benefits, it is essential to recognize the potential psychological risks associated with excessive use. Our intention is not to advocate for abandoning smartphones, similar to arguments against automobiles based on the notion that people were healthier and more physically active without them. However, it is crucial to be aware of the psychological threats linked to excessive smartphone usage, which many researchers have extensively discussed.

Key takeaways from this review include the need to better understand the psychological mechanisms underlying smartphone addiction, the influence of personality traits on usage patterns, and the impact on social and cognitive functioning. Moreover, there is a pressing need to develop and evaluate interventions that promote mindful and balanced smartphone use, aiming to reduce negative outcomes such as impaired attention or social conflicts while enhancing the positive effects like improved connectivity and cognitive stimulation.

In this review, we also emphasize the growing trend of individuals consciously limiting their smartphone usage to mitigate adverse effects [282], guided by factors such as unpleasant feelings during prolonged use and moral considerations regarding technology use [283,284,285]. Future research should prioritize longitudinal and cross-cultural studies as well as intervention efficacy to fully harness the benefits of smartphones while minimizing psychological harm.