Phase Change Materials—Applications and Systems Designs: A Literature Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
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- PCMs applications with a focus on areas where PCMs entered recently as well as on areas where PCMs utilization has been long established but the literature reports are scarce. Among most recent PCMs applications reported in the literature the most important can be mentioned: temperature control in DCs, fresh e-commerce, thermal management of electric vehicles battery systems and thermal comfort in the vehicle cabins. Other important PCMs applications that have been long implemented but not extensively presented in the literature are aerospace applications. This review attempts to synthesize main applications in the aerospace sector;
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- PCM systems design: challenges to overcome, design strategies and solutions.
2. Phase Change Materials applications
2.1. Solar Energy Storage
2.2. Space Applications
- Lafdi et al. [13] carried out a numerical study to predict the thermal performance of graphite foams infiltrated with PCMs for terrestrial and space applications. For space applications, the average value of the output power of the new energy storage system has been increased by more than eight times. In the case of terrestrial applications, the average output power using carbon foam of porosity 97% was about five times greater than that for using pure PCM. Other studies discussed the appropriateness of various PCMs for the particular conditions of the space environment.
- Cui et al. [14] studied numerically and experimentally the eutectic mixture. It was found that the output temperature of the working fluid tubes met the expected demand during the sunlight and eclipse period and the maximum temperature.
- He et al. [15] developed a two-dimensional model for PV-PCM-TE coupling system to investigate the energy transfer and conversion performance under space conditions. A suitable PCM was selected and it was integrated into the system both in pure form as well as a MFCPCM. A combined performance criterion was defined considering the power generation efficiency and the system mass, which is a critical evaluation index for space systems. The system design is presented in Figure 2b (PCM only) and Figure 2c (MFCPCM). The average total efficiencies for PV-TE, PV-PCM-TE and PV-MFCPCM-TE were 29.50%, 30.50% and 30.61%, and the corresponding average power density were 30.34 W/kg, 22.39 W/kg and 21.20 W/kg, respectively. The authors designed an orthogonal experiment in order to assess the effect of the PV-MFCPCM-TE on the power generation efficiency and power density. After running all cases of the orthogonal experiment, it was found that the mass of the ceramic layer and PCM layer had the highest weight of the PV-PCM-TE system total mass. It was concluded that reducing ceramic layer mass and using high melting enthalpy PCM was an efficient way to further reduce the mass of PV-PCM-TE coupling system and promote its application in space system.
2.3. Temperature Control of Electronics
2.4. Biomedical Applications
2.5. Thermal Storage in Building Applications
2.5.1. Passive Storage Systems
2.5.2. Active Storage Systems
2.6. Increasing the Storage Capacity of Hot/Cold Water Tanks
2.7. Two-Phase LHFTF
- Phase Change Slurries; the PCM is microencapsulation by means of chemical processes by creating a shell that contains the PCM. The microcapsules must not form agglomerations, deposits or fouling so the PCS maintains its homogeneity and can be pumped through tubes and ducts.
- Emulsion of fusible components, with the PCM dispersed in a carrier fluid and kept in suspension by a surfactant agent
- Ice slurries
2.8. Textiles with Thermoregulation Features
2.9. Automotive Applications
2.9.1. Pre-Heating Catalytic Convertors
2.9.2. Engine Cooling/Pre-Heating
2.9.3. Fuel/Air Preheating
2.9.4. Thermal Comfort in the Cabin
2.9.5. Electric Vehicles
2.10. Food Processing/Agriculture
2.11. Waste Heat Recovery
2.11.1. Data Centres
2.11.2. Adiabatic Compression of Gases
2.11.3. Greenhouses
3. PCM Systems Design Considerations
3.1. PCM Encapsulation
3.1.1. Microencapsulation
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- Preparation of a sol solution; this is usually achieved through hydrolysis of one of the precursor compounds like Tetraethoxysilane, Tetraethylorthosilicate, sodium silicate or methyl triethoxysilane. The sol solution is maintained at pH values between 2 and 3 in order to create conditions for hydrolysis reaction to occur.
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- The silicate sol solution is added to a PCM O/W emulsion drop by drop while emulsion is kept stirring to prevent formation of any continuous gel and allowing the formation of only discrete silica gel walls around PCM droplets.
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- The silica shell will be formed on the surface of the PCM droplets by the condensation polymerization of the silica solid particles. High pH (9–10) condition is maintained in the emulsion to promote condensation reaction.
Emulsion Polymerization
Interfacial Polymerization
In-Situ Polymerization
Microencapsulated Phase Change Slurries
3.1.2. Macro-Encapsulation
- Volumetric expansion/contraction of the PCM occurring during the melting and solidification, respectively
- The pressure build-up occurring in the macro-capsule if no proper expansion mean is provided
- Chemical compatibility between the PCM and the capsule material
3.2. Form-Stable PCMs
- A.
- Layered-packaging/Tubular packaging. Zhang et al. [82] designed a process represented schematically in Figure 18 to prepare (Kaol)–cetyl trimethylammonium chloride intercalation compound (Kaol-nanotubes) through the intercalation method and ultrasonic treatment. This material was used to prepare a SA/Kaol-nanotube composite form-stable phase change material (FSPCM) using a vacuum impregnation method. It was found that after the modification, the morphologies of some of the lamellar structures in the Kaol changed from nanoplates to nanotubes. Hence, the melted stearic acid easily adhered to the surfaces of the Kaol-nanotubes by physical effects, which included surface tension, hydrogen bonding, and the capillary forces during the phase transition.
- B.
- Porous packaging. Yang et al. [150] prepared a form-stable PCM through high-temperature expansion at 800 °C for 60 s, the over-dried flake graphite was developed into expanded graphite and cooled down naturally in a desiccator. PEG was configured as 20% anhydrous ethanol solution which was blended with EG by spray at mass ratios of 6:1, 7:1, 8:1, 9:1, 10:1 and 11:1. The samples were subject to a thermal treatment in a vacuum oven at 85 °C for 12 h under pressure of 0.1 MPa. After the vacuum adsorption process, the PEG/EG PCMs were prepared. The process stages are shown in Figure 19.
- C.
- Core-shell packaging. Yi et al. [151] used MMT nanosheets (2D-MMT) to encapsulating SA latex particles resulting in composite PCMs with very thin shell and high content of core material prepared through the self-assembly of positively charged MMT nanosheets on the negatively SA latex surfaces under a strong electrostatic attraction, leading to the formation of a core–shell structural composite PCM. The microstructure, thermal performances and cycling stability of this 2D-MMT/SA composites have been investigated through FTIR spectroscopy, SEM, DSC, zeta potential measurement and thermal constant analyser. The experimental results have shown that 2D-MMT/SA composite contained high mass fraction (>80%) of SA due to the very thin MMT nanosheets shell. This feature resulted in a high latent heat storage capacity of approximately 185 J/g). In addition, the thermal conductivity of this PCM composite can reach to 159.46% of SA at most on account of the relatively high thermal conductivity of MMT nanosheets.
- D.
- Network packaging. Wang et al. [152] fabricated three-dimensional palygorskite carriers (TDI-HO-Pal, “HO” stands for different diol molecules) with different pore size by the reaction of isocyanate functionalized palygorskite with dihydric alcohol through a process presented in Figure 20. It was found that by coupling the mineral with isocyanates, it could be grafted by substances containing active hydrogen atoms, or cross-bonded with dihydric alcohols or binary amines. The phase change temperature and phase transition enthalpy of SA/TDI-HO-Pal showed a size dependent property. The melting temperature and fusion latent heat increased with the enlargement of the support pore size. The thermal storage properties of SA/TDI-HO-Pal were significantly higher than that of SA/Pal, increased by 67.4% to 100.7% within the experimental range.
4. Conclusions and Future Research
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Nomenclature
ASHW | Active Solar Heating Wall |
CA | Capric Acid |
CCPCM | Cement-based Composite Phase Change Material |
CFD | Computational Fluid Dynamics |
CNF | Chitin Nanofibers |
CTES | Cold Thermal Energy Storage |
DC | Data Center |
DHW | Domestic Hot Water |
DSC | Differential Scanning Calorimetry |
FTIR | Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy |
FR | Flame Retardant |
GSHP | Ground Source Heat Pump |
GW | Gypsum Wallboard |
HVAC | Heat, Ventilation and Air Conditioning |
LA | Lauric Acid |
LCPM | Lifecycle Particulate Matter |
LHS | Latent Heat Storage |
LHFTF | Latent Heat Functional Thermal Fluids |
MA | Myristic Acid |
MDI | Methylene Diisocyanate |
MEP | Macro-encapsulated PCM |
MEPCM | Microencapsulated Phase Change Material |
MFCPCM | Photovoltaic-Metal Foam/Paraffin Composite PCM |
MMT | Montmorillonite |
OSS | Organic Silicon Shell |
O/W | Oil-Water |
PCM | Phase Change Material |
PCMSW | Phase Change Material Energy Storage Wallboard |
PCS | Phase Change Slurry |
PEG | Polyethylene Glycol |
PMMA | Poly(methyl-methacrylate) |
PSD | Particle Size Distribution |
PV | Photovoltaic |
SA | Stearic Acid |
SEM | Scanning Electronic Microscopy |
SSPCM | Shape-Stabilized Phase Change Materials |
TE | Thermoelectric |
TEM | Transmission Electronic Microscope |
TES | Thermal Energy Storage |
TESC | Thermal Energy Storage Concrete |
TGA | Thermogravimetric Analysis |
VRC | Variable Resistance–Capacitance |
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Ref. | System Design and Conditions | Findings, Conclusions |
---|---|---|
[24] | Gypsum wallboard impregnated with a mixture of methyl palmitate/methyl stearate with a melting range 23–26.5 C and latent heat of the phase transition 180 kJ/kg | Peak load shifting |
[25] | A procedure to produce TES concrete (TESC) by infiltrating porous aggregates with molten PCM under vacuum conditions | The storage capacity of the TESC was comparable with that of a commercially available PCM. |
[26] | Facade panels with double glazing combined with PCM | A more equalized energy balance in the during the day, when moderate heat gains with very low heat losses were experienced. This suggests lightweight construction appropriateness |
[27] | Laminated wallboard with a narrow phase change temperature range. | Moderating night time temperature in a passively designed room. |
[28] | Mixtures of CA and LA as the PCM to impregnate wallboards for building energy storage | After 360 thermal cycles the melting temperature and latent heat of the PCM wallboards showed no obvious changes |
[29] | Phase change GW incorporating the eutectic mixture of fatty acids | A maximum of 25% of the total mass of CA/MA eutectic could be incorporated into the GW; after 1000 cycles PCM leakage occurred |
[30] | Three-layer sandwich type wall system consisting of two PCM wallboards, impregnated with PCMs with different values of the melting point as outer layers and a middle layer of conventional thermal insulation | Annual energy savings; reduces the peak value of the cooling/heating loads. The melting point values for the two PCMs resulting in the highest value of the energy savings were identified. |
[31] | PCM-enhanced wall system and a simplified model for the heat exchange between the indoor environment and ambient was developed | The occupancy pattern influenced the value of the PCM melting point for which maximum energy savings value was reached and; the ventilation and its pattern reduced the relative value of the energy savings. |
[32] | PCM incorporated in concrete floors, in which solar thermal energy is stored in a concrete/PCM composite | Reduction of the maximum floor temperatures by 16% and an increase in the minimum temperatures of up to 7%. |
[33] | PEG based shape-stabilized PCMs were successfully prepared using CNFs isolated from crab shells | The device remained opaque (∼3.5%) below the melting point of the PEG-CNF composite and became gradually transparent as the temperature of the device increased ultimately stabilizing at a transmittance value of ∼88%. CNF phase had an effect on the thermal properties of the PEG-CNF material |
[34] | A fabrication approach of cement-based composite phase change materials (CCPCMs) by means of the water solubility of polyethylene glycol | Compared to control cement paste, the surface temperature of CCPCMs sample reduced by a maximum of 6.2 °C. |
[35] | Latent heat storage bio-composite | The maximum energy consumption of reference building models dropped by ~530 kWh per year |
[36] | (1) the model house without the solar Trombe wall, defined as the reference configuration; (2) the model house integrating the concrete solar Trombe wall; and (3) the model house integrating the PCM solar Trombe wall. three different climate conditions were considered for simulations: Paris-Orly, Lyon, and Nice | Similar minimizations of the one-year energy heating demand inside the bedroom, equal to roughly 20% (i.e., 20.45% of concrete storage wall and 19.90% of PCM storage wall) compared to the reference configuration. The heating energy demand in the bedroom, through application of the two storage walls (concrete and PCM) could be minimized by 20.34% in Paris, 20.20% in Lyon, and 68.10% in Nice (for the concrete storage wall) vs. the reference configuration; and by 18.79% in Paris, 19.56% in Lyon, and 55.15% in Nice (for the PCM storage wall) compared to the reference configuration |
Ref. | System Design and Conditions | Findings, Conclusions |
---|---|---|
[37] | Macro-encapsulated PCM panel with embedded pipes as an active ceiling cooling component as opposed to commercially available radiant cooling technologies | PCM was fully discharged, the installed heat storage capacity was enough to shift the cooling demand to off-peak hours. The MEP’s specific cooling power during melting was between 5.3 and 27.7 W/m2, with 11.3 W/m2 on average over the active ceiling surface for a water supply temperature and flow rate of 20 °C and 140 kg/h, respectively |
[38] | Solar thermal system coupling with active PCM heat storage wall. The effect of the solar collector area, hot water flow rate, initial melting temperature and thickness of PCMSW on the indoor temperature maintained by STS-APHSW was assessed. Economic comfort ratio was proposed as assessment criteria | Optimal configuration was achieved when: the solar collector area per square unit building area was 0.024 m2, hot water flow rate was 2.8 kg/s, initial melting temperature was 27 °C and the thickness of PCMSW was 20 mm. STS-APHSW can balance the time mismatch between the solar supply and demand, thus increasing the solar fraction and solar energy application potential |
[39] | A state-space model for solar active wall-based (PCM) was proposed. The proposed numerical model was applied for a multi-layer wall with PCM Wallboards (PCMW) embedded between indoor and outdoor environments | The state-space model was able to estimate the thermal behaviour of the system, as well as the thermal characteristics of embedding PCM in the internal face of the wall. The PCM presence significantly contributed to stabilizing the indoor temperature. |
[40] | Active PCM system installed in an eleven-storey building in Melbourne. Macro-encapsulated PCM with the phase transition temperature of 15 °C was installed in a large PCM tank. Water was used as the heat transfer fluid to extract and store cooling energy from the PCM tank. The performance of the active PCM system was monitored for 25 consecutive months, and the results were analysed on a seasonal basis | The active PCM system reduced cooling load on the chiller by 12–37% only during colder months, but remained inactive during the summer. In the case of maximum effectiveness, the PCM tank only utilized 15% of its available heat storage capacity to reduce the cooling load. The factors that contributed to the underperformance of active PCM system were identified: mismatch between designed and actual operation of the PCM system, inefficient system control, material quality, lack of maintenance staff training |
[41] | An experiment was conducted to study the thermal performance and energy efficiency of an ASHW-PCM system. Comparative trials were then carried out to complete its systematic optimization using CFD, considering the dominating factors that may have an effect on the systematic thermal performance: the number and location of the water capillary pipes, the PCM wallboard thickness, and the heating water temperature | The test room with the ASHW-PCM system reached an energy conservation of 1.93 kWh and an indoor temperature 21.9 °C, which are higher than that of the reference room. Numerical results showed that the number of water capillary pipes mainly affects the homogenization of the ASHW-PCM wallboard surface heating temperature, and the pipe location mostly influences the heating temperature. |
[42] | A new structure of under-floor electric heating system with SSPCM plates. The SS-PCM consisted of 75 wt.% paraffin as a dispersed PCM and of 25 wt.% polyethylene as the supporting material. | The system increased the indoor temperature of an experimental house without increasing the temperature difference; the temperature of the PCM plates was maintained at the phase transition temperature for a long period after the heaters stopped working. More than 50% of the total electric heat energy was shifted from the peak period to the off-peak hours |
Ref | PCM | Shell Material | Temperature Range (°C) | Shell Shape | Capsule Size | PCM Mass (g) | Operational Cycles | Findings |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[126] | Copper 99.9% | Cr-Ni | 1050–1150 | Cylinder | 2 mm | 1000 | No leakage | |
[127] | NaNO3, NaCl–MgCl2 | Stainless steel 304. Carbon steel 1018 | 350–490 | Cylinder | 50.8, 25.4 mm(Ø) 127, 50.8 mm (height) | 269.9 28.8 23.9 284.6 282.5 | 50 | Storage performance maintained |
[128] | NaNO3 KNO3 | AISI 321 | 160–270 | Cylinder | 27.3, 75, 39 mm(Ø) 27.7, 77, 37 mm (height) | 5000 | No shell cracking | |
[129] | Paraffin | Steel | 0–36 | Rectangular prism | 30 × 17 × 2.8 cm | 48 h | No leakage | |
[130] | NaNO3, KNO3, NaNO3–KNO3, NaNO3–KNO3–LiNO3 | Polytetrafluoroethylene-Ni | 120–350 | Spherical | 27.43 mm | 17.4 | 2200 | No leakage |
[131] | Paraffin | Aluminum | 30–49.2 | Cylinder | 29 mm(Ø) 70 mm (height) | 35 | No leakage at 90 °C |
Reference | Method | Adsorption Rate | Support | PCM |
---|---|---|---|---|
[158] | Vacuum | 85% | Porous carbon | PEG |
[159] | Sintering | NaCl, KCl, MgCl2 | Eutectic salt chloride | |
[160] | Adsorption | 81% | Expanded graphite | K2HPO4⋅3H2O– NaH2PO4⋅2H2O–Na2S2O3⋅5H2O–H2O |
[161] | Adsorption | - | Expanded graphite | KNO3-LiNO3-Ca(NO3)2 |
[162] | Solution impregnation | 82% | Expanded graphite | LiNO3–KCl, LiNO3–NaNO3 LiNO3–NaCl |
[95] | Vacuum-assisted melting infiltration | 97% | Graphene oxide | PEG-6000 |
Hydrothermal reductio | 86% |
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Diaconu, B.M.; Cruceru, M.; Anghelescu, L. Phase Change Materials—Applications and Systems Designs: A Literature Review. Designs 2022, 6, 117. https://doi.org/10.3390/designs6060117
Diaconu BM, Cruceru M, Anghelescu L. Phase Change Materials—Applications and Systems Designs: A Literature Review. Designs. 2022; 6(6):117. https://doi.org/10.3390/designs6060117
Chicago/Turabian StyleDiaconu, Bogdan Marian, Mihai Cruceru, and Lucica Anghelescu. 2022. "Phase Change Materials—Applications and Systems Designs: A Literature Review" Designs 6, no. 6: 117. https://doi.org/10.3390/designs6060117