An Overview of the Penguin Visual System
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Evolutionary Considerations
1.2. Requirements of an Amphibious Lifestyle
1.3. Behavioural Repertoire and Light Intensity
1.4. Aim of the Review
2. Materials and Methods
3. Results
3.1. Ocular and Adnexal Anatomy
3.1.1. The Orbit (Orbita)
3.1.2. The Lids (Palpebrae)
3.1.3. The Globe (Bulbus oculi)
3.1.4. Optics of the Globe
3.1.5. Cornea
3.1.6. Sclera
3.1.7. Iris and Pupil
3.1.8. Lens, Accommodation, and the Ciliary Body
3.1.9. Retina
3.1.10. Choroid and Posterior Segment Nutrition
3.2. Physiology of the Penguin Eye
3.2.1. Intraocular Pressure
3.2.2. Tear Production
3.2.3. Visual Fields
3.2.4. Stereopsis
4. Discussion
4.1. Adaptions to Allow Amphibious Vision
4.2. Adaptations for Dim Light
4.3. Compression
4.4. Other Future Directions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Uniocular Field | Posterior Blind Area | Binocular Field | Binocular Vertical Field | Cyclopean Field | Method | Source | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Humboldt, air | 155 | 78 | 28 | 125 | 282 | Histology, optical ray tracing | 47 |
Humboldt, water | 123 | 114 | 0 | 77 | 246 | Histology, optical ray tracing | 47 |
King, air | 183 | 14 | 29 | Fundus reflex | 18 | ||
King, water | 127 | 70 | −36 1 | 254 (but missing 36 frontally | Fundus reflex | 18 | |
Southern Rockhopper, air | 144 | 14 | Fundus reflex | 54 |
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Hadden, P.W.; Zhang, J. An Overview of the Penguin Visual System. Vision 2023, 7, 6. https://doi.org/10.3390/vision7010006
Hadden PW, Zhang J. An Overview of the Penguin Visual System. Vision. 2023; 7(1):6. https://doi.org/10.3390/vision7010006
Chicago/Turabian StyleHadden, Peter W., and Jie Zhang. 2023. "An Overview of the Penguin Visual System" Vision 7, no. 1: 6. https://doi.org/10.3390/vision7010006