Next Article in Journal
Population Structure Dynamics of Elasmobranchs Susceptible to Shrimp Trawling Along the Southern Gulf of Mexico
Previous Article in Journal
Investigation of Plasticity in Morphology, Organ Traits and Nutritional Composition in Chinese Soft-Shelled Turtle (Pelodiscus sinensis) Under Different Culturing Modes
 
 
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Review

Content of Short-Lived Radionuclides (54Mn, 60Co, and 65Zn) in Fish

by
Nataliia E. Zarubina
1,*,
Vladislav Semak
2,*,
Liliia P. Ponomarenko
3 and
Oleg S. Burdo
1
1
Institute for Nuclear Research, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, 03028 Kyiv, Ukraine
2
Center for Biomedical Technology, Department for Biomedical Research, University for Continuing Education Krems, 3500 Krems, Austria
3
Department of Physics and Mathematics, National Technical University of Ukraine “Igor Sikorsky Kyiv Polytechnic Institute”, 03056 Kyiv, Ukraine
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Fishes 2025, 10(3), 90; https://doi.org/10.3390/fishes10030090
Submission received: 9 January 2025 / Revised: 13 February 2025 / Accepted: 18 February 2025 / Published: 20 February 2025

Abstract

This review summarizes data on the accumulation of three short-lived biogenic radionuclides—54Mn, 60Co, and 65Zn—in various fish species in the cooling pond of the Chornobyl Nuclear Power Plant in Ukraine, along with an analysis of the available literature. Significant differences exist in 54Mn, 60Co, and 65Zn accumulation levels among the different fish species. Food intake is the primary pathway for these radionuclides to enter the fish organisms. These radionuclides accumulate differently in various organs and tissues. There is no consensus on the specific organ that primarily accumulates each radionuclide. In most studies, the highest concentrations of 54Mn have been recorded in internal organs. The kidneys are identified as the main organ accumulating 60Co. The highest concentrations of 65Zn are typically found in the liver and kidneys; however, significant accumulation is also noted in external organs and tissues (gills, fins). In most cases, the lowest concentrations of 54Mn, 60Co, and 65Zn are observed in the muscle tissues of fish.
Key Contribution: Biogenic short-lived radionuclides such as 54Mn, 60Co, and 65Zn primarily enter fish through the food chain, accumulating differently in various external and internal organs, with the lowest levels consistently found in muscle tissue.

1. Introduction

Short-lived radionuclides such as 54Mn, 60Co, and 65Zn enter the environment through nuclear explosions, accidents, and regulated emissions from nuclear facilities and mining plants [1]. Their accumulation in fish is critical for understanding ecological and human health risks. These radionuclides vary in half-lives, making their study in nature challenging: 60Co (5.27 years), 54Mn (312 days), and 65Zn (245 days) [2].
Metals enter fish via gills, skin, and the gastrointestinal tract, transporting through the bloodstream and binding to proteins. This results in differential accumulation across organs, with external tissues acting as primary entry points, while internal organs like the liver and kidneys show the highest concentrations [3,4].
Manganese plays a role in metabolic functions, influencing respiration, bone formation, and reproduction. It remains relatively stable in fish tissues, irrespective of external concentrations [3,5]. Cobalt, vital for hemoglobin synthesis, aids in iron assimilation and influences calcium and phosphorus metabolism [5]. Zinc is crucial for enzymatic reactions, tissue oxygenation, and redox processes, accumulating predominantly in bones and scales [3,5].
One of the earliest studies on 54Mn and 65Zn accumulation in marine organisms was conducted in the Atlantic Ocean, near Beaufort, North Carolina, between 1964 and 1966. The research revealed that levels of these radionuclides varied among different aquatic organisms. For example, the highest concentration of 65Zn was observed in the mollusk Crassostrea virginica (Gmelin, 1791), while Argopecten irradians (Lamarck, 1819) showed the highest levels of 54Mn [6]. Similarly, research on the genus Oncorhynchus fish on the U.S. Pacific coast during the 1960s detected high 60Co and 65Zn levels in liver and roe, exceeding muscle concentrations [7].
Similar studies were carried out in freshwater ecosystems. For instance, between 1963 and 1967, 65Zn was found in the body of Acipenser transmontanus (Richardson, 1836) sampled from the Hanford Reach River and the McNary Pool (USA) [8]. By 1990, this radionuclide was undetectable in the species. Poston T.M. and Klopfer D.C [3] concluded that these isotopes accumulate unevenly in different organs and tissues of fish. The highest concentrations of 60Co were found in the kidneys, while the lowest levels of 54Mn were observed in muscle tissue, with bone tissue showing the highest levels of this radionuclide. The distribution of 65Zn in fish organs and tissues was as follows: kidneys = gonads > liver > gills > muscles = heart.
The radiation risk to humans from consuming fish containing short-lived isotopes (e.g., 65Zn) was assessed in the United States in the mid-1960s. During an experiment, volunteers consumed the muscle tissue of Coregonus houi (Linnaeus, 1758) from the Columbia River daily for 11 weeks. The concentration of 65Zn in the fish muscle was 5 nCi/200 g (i.e., 185 Bq/200 g) of fresh weight. The researchers concluded that this concentration of 65Zn in the fish muscle posed no significant health risk to humans [9]. Although global fallout decreased after atmospheric nuclear test bans, research on 54Mn, 60Co, and 65Zn continued, focusing on uptake mechanisms.
Despite the rapid disappearance of manganese, cobalt, and zinc radionuclides from the environment following the ban on atmospheric nuclear tests and the subsequent decline in global fallout, interest in studying the accumulation of 54Mn, 60Co, and 65Zn by fish persisted. Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, researchers conducted laboratory studies to investigate the primary pathways through which these radionuclides enter fish and the variations in their accumulation across different organs and tissues.
Laboratory experiments confirmed food as the primary uptake pathway for 54Mn and 65Zn, while 60Co is absorbed from both food and water [10,11,12,13]. Pentreath [14] found that waterborne cobalt contributes minimally to fish uptake. Studies with Seriola quinqueradiata (Temminck and Schlegel, 1845) showed that 60Co concentrates in blood-rich organs, while 54Mn accumulates in bones, and 65Zn distributes evenly across organs and muscles [10].
Research on Phoxinus laevis (Kessler, 1879) found that kidneys retained the highest 60Co levels, while 54Mn accumulated mostly in external organs [15]. Another study on Pleuronectes platessa (Linnaeus, 1758) confirmed that 58Co concentrates in intestines and gills, with minimal muscle accumulation [14]. In experiments conducted by Koyanagi T. et al. [16], radionuclides 54Mn, 60Co, and 65Zn were introduced directly into the stomach of Kareius bicoloratus (Basilewsky, 1855) in the form of gelatin capsules filled with moist bottom sediments containing these radionuclides. The distribution of radionuclides across organs and tissues was determined one week after introduction. The highest concentrations of 54Mn, 60Co, and 65Zn were detected in the intestines. High levels in internal organs (liver and kidneys) indicated a relatively rapid transfer of radionuclides from the stomach to these organs. Muscles generally contain the lowest levels of radionuclides.
Pentreath [11] found that 65Zn in P. platessa distributes evenly across bones, skin, and muscles, with high gonadal levels. Studies on Raja clouata (Linnaeus, 1758) showed 65Zn concentration in the liver and spleen, while 54Mn accumulated in cartilage and the highest 58Co levels were in gills and heart [12].
Different aquatic species accumulate radionuclides at varying rates. Experiments showed that algae rapidly absorb and release 60Co, while mollusks and fish retain it longer [13]. These findings underline the need for continued research into radionuclide behavior in aquatic ecosystems and their implications for environmental safety.
The study of short-lived radionuclides is particularly important due to their ecological and human health implications. These radionuclides can enter the environment following nuclear accidents, such as the Chornobyl disaster, leading to contamination of aquatic ecosystems. Understanding the behavior of these radionuclides in fish populations is crucial for assessing their potential risks to ecosystem stability and human consumers.
One of the key challenges in studying short-lived radionuclides is their rapid decay, which makes long-term tracking and analysis difficult. This has resulted in inconsistencies in the literature regarding organ-specific accumulation and uptake pathways. Additionally, differences in experimental conditions, species physiology, and environmental factors further complicate the interpretation of results, leading to a lack of consensus on the distribution of these radionuclides in fish tissues.
The objective of this review is to synthesize the available literature on the accumulation and distribution of 54Mn, 60Co, and 65Zn in fish, highlighting key findings and unresolved questions. It aims to discuss pathways of uptake, organ-specific behavior, and potential implications for both ecological stability and human health. By identifying existing knowledge gaps, this review seeks to inform future research directions and enhance risk assessment methodologies. Understanding these processes is essential for developing improved environmental monitoring strategies and ensuring the safety of aquatic food resources.

2. Methodology

To perform this literature review, focusing on the content of short-lived radionuclides in fish, we utilized a variety of databases and search engines. We selected Scopus, PubMed, and Google Scholar as our primary sources for the literature, as well as the institutional library of the Institute for Nuclear Research of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine in Kyiv. The keywords included bioaccumulation, fish, content, radioactive element, radionuclides, manganese, cobalt, zinc, Chernobyl, Chornobyl, nuclear testing, global fallout, water contamination, mining, ecological half-life, etc., and the search results were further specified by the employment of a combination of keywords with Boolean operators (AND, OR, NOT). We included peer-reviewed articles published in English, Russian, and Ukrainian. We excluded the studies that were not available in full text and the research that was not directly related to aquatic biota. We included some illustrative experimental data (Tables 1–4) to discuss the literature findings. These data were obtained from controlled studies in the Chornobyl area performed by N. E. Zarubina.

3. Impact of the Chornobyl Nuclear Accident on the Cooling Pond and Its Biota

The unprecedented nuclear disaster at Chornobyl on 26 April 1986 led to extensive radionuclide contamination of vast areas. The levels of these radionuclides in the biological components of the water bodies within the 30 km exclusion zone soared to tens of thousands or even tens of millions of times higher than pre-accident levels. Among the most contaminated sites was the Chornobyl Nuclear Power Plant’s (ChNPP) cooling pond (CP).
During the accident response, including firefighting and cleanup operations, irradiated construction materials, graphite fragments, nuclear fuel, and various kinds of contaminated debris were introduced into the CP. In 1986, decontamination efforts at the plant site resulted in dust, debris, and dirt being washed into the intake and, to some extent, the discharge channels of the pond. Dust generation and waste from constructing the “sarcophagus” also contributed to the additional influx of radioactive materials into the CP [1].
Initial assessments indicate that up to 200,000 Ci (approximately 7.4 × 1015 Bq) of various fission products were introduced into the CP during the early phases of the disaster [17,18].
Before 2013, when the water level of the CP was reduced by halting water inflow from the Prypiat River, the CP was an artificial pond located southeast of the NPP and created by damming a section of the river’s floodplain. The dam stretches 21.6 km, with a drainage channel running along its downstream slope, divided into northern and southern sections. The CP is roughly oval, encircled by a levee, with a divider dam along its longitudinal axis. A coastal pumping station in the northeast replenished water losses by drawing from the river [1] (Figure 1, Figure 2 and Figure 3).
Before the accident, the CP’s warm waters were used for industrial fish farming [1]. From its establishment as an experimental fish tank farm in 1978–1979, it developed into a powerful industrial fish production facility by 1986. Various fish species, including Hypophthalmichthys molitrix (Valenciennes, 1844), Aristichthys nobilis (Richardson, 1845), Ctenopharyngodon idella (Valenciennes, 1844), Ictalurus punctatus (Rafinesque, 1818), and several breeds of carp and crucian carp were raised in fish tanks. Experiments were also conducted on cultivating sturgeon and salmon species. Moreover, the CP was stocked with valuable fish species such as H. molitrix, A. nobilis, C. idella, and Cyprinus carpio (Linnaeus, 1758) [19].

4. Radionuclide Contamination in Chornobyl NPP Cooling Pond: Effects on Water and Aquatic Biota

The primary source of radionuclide contamination in the CP under normal plant operating conditions was liquid effluents, including imbalanced water and waste from specialized laundries and sanitary checkpoints. The greatest volume of imbalanced water discharge typically occurred during the plant’s initial operating period [20]. Before the 1986 accident, the presence of 54Mn and 60Co in CP water was regularly detected, although at low concentrations—no more than 0.003 Bq/L in 1980. These radionuclides were quickly removed from the water, predominantly accumulating in the sediment and aquatic vegetation. For example, sediment samples taken in the fall of 1981 showed radionuclide levels of 243 Bq/kg for 54Mn and 500 Bq/kg for 60Co, while 65Zn was not detected in either water or sediment before the accident [21].
Manganese (54Mn): Before the accident, 54Mn levels in free-living fish species were relatively low, with the highest concentration in muscle tissue at 8.5 Bq/kg. Levels in the head and internal organs did not exceed 23.5 Bq/kg. The peak influx likely occurred in 1980–1981, and by 1985, due to its short half-life, 54Mn levels had decreased. It was primarily found in non-predatory planktophages and benthophages, with significantly lower levels observed in fish raised in tanks on clean, artificial feeds. After the accident, 54Mn concentrations in all the CP’s components increased significantly but were detected in only 3–4% of approximately 5000 radionuclide measurements. The highest specific activity of 54Mn was observed in the water’s vegetation in March 1987, at 2000 Bq/kg dry weight. In fish, 54Mn levels were orders of magnitude lower than those of other radionuclides, generally ranging between 10 and 500 Bq/kg fresh weight, with the highest concentration (561 Bq/kg) found in the roe of Perca fluviatilis (Linnaeus, 1758) in March 1988. Post-accident, 54Mn was still primarily detected in benthophages and planktophages, but unlike pre-accident data, it was now mainly found in the internal organs, comprising over 50% of the detections. Its distribution across fish tissues was relatively uniform, with no single organ or tissue identified as a specific accumulator of this radionuclide [22].
Cobalt (60Co): Pre-accident 60Co levels in fish were generally low, peaking at 22.2 Bq/kg in the second half of 1981, with a minimum specific activity of 0.49 Bq/kg in fish tissue. By 1985, 60Co levels had decreased several times, not exceeding 4.6 Bq/kg, with an average of 1.5 Bq/kg. After the accident, 60Co levels in the biota of the cooling pond increased significantly. 60Co was widely detected in high concentrations in filamentous algae (Cladophora spp.) and water plants (Potamogeton spp.) with specific activities of 2300 Bq/kg and 3400 Bq/kg dry weight, respectively. Different fish species showed varied 60Co levels, with the highest found in planktophages H. molitrix (Table 1) and A. nobilis. Benthophages such as C. carpio (Table 2), Rutilus rutilus (Linnaeus, 1758), and Abramis brama (Linnaeus, 1758) also had significant levels of 60Co. In fish with a mixed type of nutrition (Silurus glanis (Linnaeus, 1758), I. punctatus, and P. fluviatilis), the 60Co content is similar in value to the benthophages—R. rutilus and A. brama. The lowest concentrations were found in ichthyophages Sander lucioperca (Linnaeus, 1758) (Table 4) and Aspius aspius (Linnaeus, 1758). Ingestion is proposed as the primary pathway for cobalt uptake in fish. The contribution of the nutrition pathway to the accumulation of 60Co by fish of low trophic levels is probably more significant than the accumulation of this radionuclide by ichthyophages. However, studies have suggested that 60Co can enter the organisms of the studied fish species both through the trophic chain and directly from the water. 60Co distribution within fish bodies was uneven, with the highest levels found in the kidneys, followed by the liver, swim bladder, eggs, spine, fat, and red muscles. Scales and heads in direct contact with water also frequently showed high cobalt levels, while the lowest concentrations were detected in the heart, stomach, ribs, and fat [23].
Zinc (65Zn): Unlike manganese and cobalt, zinc was more frequently detected in fish samples before the accident. The range of 65Zn concentrations across different organs and tissues varied by more than tenfold, with the lowest levels found in scales, internal organs, and muscles, and the highest (up to 500.8 Bq/kg fresh weight) in the spine and head. 65Zn was detected in fish of all studied ecological groups, including obligate phytophages (C. idella), benthophages (Blicca bjoerkna (Linnaeus, 1758), A. brama, R. rutilus, Carassius carassius (Linnaeus, 1758), and C. carpio), planktophages (A. nobilis and H. molitrix), facultative planktophages (Abramis ballerus (Linnaeus, 1758)), and obligate ichthyophages (S. lucioperca and Esox lucius (Linnaeus, 1758)). Post-accident, 65Zn was predominantly found in fish, with specific activities reaching 6000 Bq/kg fresh weight. It was detected in only one water sample and one sample of periphyton, represented by filamentous algae (Cladophora spp.). Unlike this radionuclide’s relatively uniform pre-accident distribution among ecological fish groups, it was more frequently detected in peaceful species post-accident. Approximately 85% of fish samples detected 65Zn were benthophages (B. bjoerkna (Table 3), A. brama, C. carpio, and R. rutilus) and planktophages (H. molitrix and A. nobilis). Around 15% of all samples that had 65Zn were from fish with mixed types of nutrition (S. glanis, I. punctatus, and P. fluviatilis), with only about 8% of all samples in obligate ichthyophages (L. lucioperca and A. aspius). Post-accident, the distribution of 65Zn in fish tissues differed significantly from pre-accident patterns, with its presence in muscles and bones becoming rare and in lower concentrations than in other organs and tissues. The highest frequency of 65Zn detection occurred in organs and tissues directly exposed to water, such as fins, scales, gills, skin, and head, indicating that these tissues are reliable indicators of 65Zn presence in the water [24]. Table 1, Table 2, Table 3 and Table 4 summarize the organ-specific content of the discussed short-lived radionuclides in four selected fish species, providing illustrative examples of their distribution and accumulation patterns.
Table 1. Content of radionuclides (54Mn, 60Co, and 65Zn) in H. molitrix (Bq/kg fresh weight) with years before the Chornobyl accident labelled with an asterisk (*).
Table 1. Content of radionuclides (54Mn, 60Co, and 65Zn) in H. molitrix (Bq/kg fresh weight) with years before the Chornobyl accident labelled with an asterisk (*).
OrganYear54Mn60Co65Zn
Head1981 *25.3 ± 10.151.5 ± 15.7500.8 ± 101.4
1985 *-1.23 ± 0.26-
1987-89.6 ± 10.1204.2 ± 62.2
1988-121.5 ± 10.6110.9 ± 13.4
1990-18.4 ± 3.4-
Internal Organs1985 *0.8 ± 0.22.7 ± 0.4
1987 568.0 ± 54.9519.2 ± 80.6
198898.0 ± 17.2977.2 ± 72.394.8 ± 31.2
Caviar1985 * 1.67 ± 0.4
1987 167.3 ± 23.6
1988 152.9 ± 16.6513.4 ± 74.1
1990 87.8 ± 13.4
Muscles1985 *-0.93 ± 0.26
1987 60.2 ± 16.1
198849.1 ± 10.754.1 ± 11.7
1989 42.9 ± 6.4
1990 15.9 ± 4.1
Table 2. Content of radionuclides (54Mn, 60Co, and 65Zn) in C. carpio (Bq/kg fresh weight) after the Chornobyl accident.
Table 2. Content of radionuclides (54Mn, 60Co, and 65Zn) in C. carpio (Bq/kg fresh weight) after the Chornobyl accident.
OrganYear54Mn60Co65Zn
Head1986-140.3 ± 30.3867.8 ± 100.8
1987-44.6 ± 8.9279.4 ± 38.2
1988-14.9 ± 3.2270.5 ± 29.7
1989-74.2 ± 10.182.8 ± 23.3
1990-10.7 ± 2.833.9 ± 5.8
Fins1986--754.0 ± 74.8
1987--1339.1 ± 124.5
1988--259.9 ± 28.1
Scales1986-61.6 ± 28.6751.44 ± 122.6
1987-191.3 ± 24.7775.2 ± 78.4
1988-26.2 ± 5.670.4 ± 27.7
1989-44.1 ± 9.7-
1990-79.7 ± 13.3-
Internal Organs1986-87.1 ± 20.0626.3 ± 87.2
1987-173.4 ± 20.41385.1 ± 114.0
1989-74.2 ± 10.182.8 ± 23.3
1990-12.2 ± 3.6-
Muscles1986168.9 ± 55.352.2 ± 15.3283.6 ± 96.0
1987-415.3 ± 46.3754.2 ± 110.1
1988-17.6 ± 3.563.3 ± 14.7
1989-15.8 ± 6.7-
1990-3.5 ± 1.3-
Table 3. Content of radionuclides (54Mn, 60Co, and 65Zn) in B. bjoerkna (Bq/kg fresh weight) after the Chornobyl accident.
Table 3. Content of radionuclides (54Mn, 60Co, and 65Zn) in B. bjoerkna (Bq/kg fresh weight) after the Chornobyl accident.
OrganYear54Mn60Co65Zn
Head1987-171.9 ± 46.5765.2 ± 135.5
1988-36.7 ± 5.052.9 ± 11.4
1989-14.9 ± 4.221.9 ± 10.2
1990-9.8 ± 3.1-
Fins1987-286.6 ± 73.7478.4 ± 157.9
1988-47.6 ± 9.1-
Internal Organs1987-115.2 ± 30.0-
1988-84.9 ± 10.8178.9 ± 25.7
1989-66.3 ± 9.2-
1990-38.4 ± 8.3-
Muscles1987-64.7 ± 26.2-
1988-28.7 ± 8.44-
1989-12.9 ± 4.1-
1990-4.78 ± 1.2-
Table 4. Content of radionuclides (54Mn, 60Co, and 65Zn) in S. lucioperca (Bq/kg fresh weight) after the Chornobyl accident.
Table 4. Content of radionuclides (54Mn, 60Co, and 65Zn) in S. lucioperca (Bq/kg fresh weight) after the Chornobyl accident.
OrganYear54Mn60Co65Zn
Fins1987-12.9 ± 5.373.9 ± 25.2
1988-195.2 ± 22.7128.5 ± 22.5
1989-17.9 ± 5.4-
1990--26.8 ± 15.3
Scales1987--529.6 ± 147.7
1988--304.1 ± 65.8
1990-46.3 ± 15.2-
Internal Organs1987-82.1 ± 2.1378.8 ± 75.9
1988-48.2 ± 10.8-
1989-67.2 ± 18.4-
1990-20.4 ± 4.7-
Muscles198758.2 ± 19.8-390.6 ± 82.9
1989-17.5 ± 8.9-
1994-15.8 ± 4.5-

5. Accumulation of 54Mn, 60Co, and 65Zn in Fish After the Chornobyl Accident

Investigating the accumulation and redistribution of radioactive isotopes such as manganese, cobalt, and zinc in fish persisted following the Chornobyl nuclear accident. The results of the studies [25,26] asserted that the belonging of fish to a certain trophic level significantly affects the concentration of isotopes 54Mn, 60Co, and 65Zn in them. These findings are consistent with experimental results obtained in the Chornobyl exclusion zone (Table 1, Table 2, Table 3 and Table 4), which showed that concentrations of these radionuclides decrease with higher trophic levels (trophic transfer coefficients, TTF < 1). The scheme of 54Mn, 60Co, and 65Zn intake is shown in Figure 4.
Radionuclides enter fish organisms through two main pathways: direct uptake from water and indirect intake via food sources (plankton, benthos, plants, and other fish). The efficiency and dominance of these pathways vary depending on the trophic level of the fish.
Radionuclides dissolved in water can be absorbed through the gills, skin, and gastrointestinal tract of fish. This pathway is particularly significant for cobalt (60Co), as direct absorption from water is a key source of its accumulation [11]. The gills, which have a large surface area and thin epithelial layers, serve as a primary site for the uptake of dissolved metals, including radionuclides.
Studies indicate that fish in contaminated waters exhibit high radioactivity levels in their gills and intestines, confirming the importance of waterborne radionuclide absorption [16]. However, the extent of waterborne uptake varies among species and environmental conditions.
Food intake is the predominant pathway for the accumulation of 54Mn and 65Zn, while 60Co is absorbed both through food and directly from water [10]. Different fish species, depending on their trophic level, exhibit variations in the efficiency of assimilation and accumulation of these radionuclides.
Fish are classified into different trophic levels based on their diet, which influences the pathways and magnitude of radionuclide accumulation.
Phytophage fish primarily consume aquatic plants, which can accumulate radionuclides from water and sediments. 65Zn tends to be more concentrated in plants compared to 54Mn and 60Co, making it the most prevalent radionuclide in this group [3]. These fish accumulate radionuclides mainly through digestion, with the highest levels found in digestive organs and liver.
Planktophage acquire radionuclides by consuming plankton, which rapidly absorb contaminants from water. 54Mn and 65Zn are more effectively transferred through this pathway due to their biological functions in metabolic processes [27]. These elements tend to accumulate in the gills and bones, whereas 60Co is less prevalent in this group since it does not strongly bind to plankton.
Benthophage fish consume benthic organisms, such as detritus feeders, mollusks, and invertebrates that live in contaminated sediments. This feeding behavior makes them particularly susceptible to 60Co and 65Zn accumulation, as these radionuclides bind strongly to sediment particles [27]. They accumulate mainly in the liver, kidneys, and bones. 54Mn concentrations tend to be lower in benthophages compared to planktophages due to its preferential uptake by plankton [11].
Fish with mixed feeding consume different types of animal food (benthic organisms and fish), allowing them to accumulate radionuclides from multiple sources. The relative levels of 54Mn, 60Co, and 65Zn in these fish depend on their predominant food source. Those with a higher intake of benthic organisms show increased 60Co accumulation [27].
Ichthyophage fish, which feed on other fish, accumulate radionuclides primarily through trophic transfer. Unlike lower trophic levels, where direct waterborne uptake plays a larger role, predatory fish primarily accumulate 60Co, 65Zn, and 54Mn via their diet. However, trophic transfer coefficients (TTF) for these radionuclides are often <1, meaning that concentrations decrease as they move up the food chain [3]. Consequently, predatory fish exhibit lower overall radionuclide levels than their prey, particularly for 54Mn, which is not efficiently biomagnified.
Because 54Mn, 60Co, and 65Zn have nearly disappeared from the environment due to their relatively short half-lives, many studies on these radionuclides have been conducted in laboratory settings since 1986. It should be noted that the Fukushima Dai-ichi nuclear accident in Japan in 2011 did not result in the release of these isotopes into the environment. Therefore, studies of the accumulation of radioactive isotopes of manganese, cobalt, and zinc by fish in natural conditions were not possible after this accident.
Recent decades of research largely confirm previously obtained data. Laboratory experiments with Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum, 1792) have demonstrated that different organs accumulate the radionuclide 54Mn at varying levels. The skin, gills, kidneys, liver, and intestines are the primary entry sites, while bones, the head, brain, and fins are receptor and storage sites. However, unlike the findings from other studies, this research identifies muscles as a significant tissue for storing radioactive manganese [28].
Other studies have also suggested that muscles are a storage site for 54Mn, 60Co, and 65Zn in fish [29]. Experiments on the distribution of these radionuclides, accumulated from seawater by S. canicula, Raja undulata (Lacepède, 1802), Torpedo marmorata (Risso, 1810), Scophthalmus maximus (Linnaeus, 1758), Sparus aurata (Linnaeus, 1758), and Dicentrarchus labrax (Linnaeus, 1758), revealed their heterogeneous distribution within the fish body. The kidneys were a secondary storage site for radionuclides for all these species, while the head, muscles, and skin were identified as the main sites of accumulation.
The accumulation of 60Co in different organs of O. mykiss under laboratory conditions was also found to be uneven. The highest concentrations of this radionuclide were found in the gills, internal organs (swim bladder, heart, and spleen), and kidneys. By the end of the experiment, the kidneys had the highest concentrations of radio cobalt, followed by internal organs, the head, gills, and liver. The lowest concentration of 60Co was found in the muscles [30], contrasting with previous findings.
Researchers have no consensus regarding the primary organ that stores 54Mn, 60Co, and 65Zn in fish. For example, Jeffree R.A. and co-workers [31] suggest that the skin is the main reservoir for these radionuclides based on laboratory studies with Scyliorhinus canicula (Linnaeus, 1758). In a laboratory study on C. carpio, the highest concentrations of 65Zn were found in the gills, kidneys, internal organs, and eyes, as noted in [32].
However, Jeng S.-S. and Lian J.-L. [33] report that in laboratory studies on four fish species, neither the kidneys nor gills had as high specific radioactivity for 65Zn as the digestive tract, regardless of whether the zinc was ingested through food or water. Different fish species absorbed varying amounts of zinc from their diet, with the order of absorption being C. carpio > Oreochromis niloticus x O. aureus > Ctenopharyngodon idellus (Valenciennes, 1844) > H. molitrix when adequate zinc concentrations were present in the diet and the water was uncontaminated.
The findings in [34] confirm the results obtained in earlier studies of 54Mn, 60Co, and 65Zn accumulation by fish. Under laboratory conditions, the primary route of intake of these radionuclides into Psetta maxima (Linnaeus, 1758) and Scyliorhinus canicula (Linnaeus, 1758) was through food. Species differences were observed, particularly in the uptake of Co, which the authors attribute to differences in diet and physiological and ecological conditions.
Previously noted differences in the accumulation of manganese, cobalt, and zinc radioisotopes by different fish species are discussed in [35]. As in the previous research, the studies were conducted with P. maxima and S. canicula. Radionuclides accumulated faster in S. canicula than in P. maxima. In S. canicula, the highest levels of 54Mn were found in the kidneys, while the highest levels of 65Zn were in the digestive tract, although they also remained high in other organs and tissues. In P. maxima, the highest concentrations of 65Zn and the second-highest concentrations of 54Mn and 57Co were found in the kidneys.
The absorption efficiency in juvenile Menidia menidia (Linnaeus, 1758) fed copepods (Acartia spp.) contaminated with radioactive cobalt and zinc isotopes under laboratory conditions was low, with 57Co at just 2% and 65Zn slightly higher at 6% [36]. The authors suggest that the behavior of radiopharmaceuticals in fish fed artificial diets may not reflect their behavior in natural systems.
A significant result of studies on manganese, cobalt, and zinc accumulation in fish is that the concentrations of stable and radioactive elements differ within the fish. For example, the study described in [6] indicates that 54Mn accumulates selectively compared to stable Mn. Mollusks of the Pectinidae spp. also selectively accumulate 54Mn. Laboratory studies confirm field data on the differences in the accumulation of stable and radioactive isotopes of Zn and Mn by fish [11].
Despite the significant differences in the concentrations of stable and radioactive isotopes of the same element in fish, as reported in various studies, the authors decided to present findings on the accumulation of stable manganese, cobalt, and zinc in fish.
Similar to the accumulation of radioactive isotopes of manganese, cobalt, and zinc, variations in the accumulation of their stable isotopes (Mn, Co, and Zn) are often associated with the trophic levels of aquatic organisms [37]. Research presented in [38] discusses the impact of the trophic level of marine animals on the accumulation of various elements. Studies conducted in Baffin Bay (Canada) revealed that Co and Mn do not exhibit biomagnification at each level of the ecological pyramid within the food chain of this ecosystem. However, stable Zn was found to biomagnify, increasing concentration with higher trophic levels.
Investigations carried out in the Olifants River, Mpumalanga (South Africa) with fish species Oreochromis mossambicus (Peters, 1852) and Clarias gariepinus (Burchell, 1822) demonstrated that muscle tissue consistently contained significantly lower levels of stable Zn than other tissues and organs, corroborating findings from studies on the accumulation of radioactive metal isotopes in fish. Gills and liver exhibited relatively high concentrations of Zn, with somewhat lower levels in the skin. The primary reason for species-specific differences in Zn bioaccumulation was attributed to variations in the dietary habits and behavior of the studied fish species [4].
Canli M. and Atli G. [39] reported that the average concentration of stable Zn in the muscles, gills, and liver of six fish species (Sparus auratus (Linnaeus, 1758), Atherina hepsetus (Linnaeus, 1758), Mugil cephalus (Linnaeus, 1758), Trigla cuculus (Linnaeus, 1758), Sardina pilchardus (Walbaum, 1792), and Scomberesox saurus (Walbaum, 1792)) from the northeast Mediterranean Sea, Karatas (Turkey), varied significantly. The authors suggested that these differences are due to ecological needs, swimming behavior, and metabolic activity among the different species. Zinc concentrations were highest in the liver and gills and lowest in the muscles of all studied fish species.
The relationship between the content of stable Zn and Mn isotopes in fish of different species and their diet was investigated by Malik and Maurya [40]. Benthic fish (Heteropneustes fossilis (Bloch, 1794)) in the Kali River (India) exhibited higher levels of concentration of zinc and manganese compared to surface-feeding fish (Pethia ticto (Hamilton, 1822)). Seasonal variations in the accumulation of these metals were also observed, with minimal zinc and manganese accumulation during the rainy season and maximum levels in the summer.
The influence of species, sampling location, and season on the concentration of stable zinc in seven sampling stations distributed along the Ria de Aveiro (Portugal) in fish muscles is highlighted in [41]. However, contrasting results were presented in [42], where zinc levels in the muscles of two catfish species (Channa punctata (Bloch, 1793) and Aorichthys aor (Hamilton, 1822)) from the Ganges River at Allahabad (India) were found to be independent of the season. That study also noted that zinc concentrations in fish muscles were higher than the content of other heavy metals.
In Pterois spp. fish caught in the Atlantic Ocean near the island of Cuba, the highest concentrations of stable Mn and Zn were found in the liver, compared to their levels in the kidneys and muscles. The highest levels of stable Co were measured in the kidneys, which the authors attributed to this organ’s excretory function. Although the level of Co in the kidneys was low, it was an order of magnitude higher than in the liver and muscles [43].
In three fish species (Solea vulgaris (Linnaeus, 1758), Anguilla anguilla (Linnaeus, 1758), and Liza aurata (Risso, 1810)) from water bodies in the Odiel estuary and two in the Bay of Cádiz on the southwestern Atlantic coast of Spain, significant levels of stable zinc were found in the liver. At the same time, manganese concentrations were minimal [44]. The authors noted that Mn concentrations were higher in muscles than in the liver; however, this ratio varied among different fish species. This finding of higher manganese content in fish muscles contradicts numerous reports that this chemical element is minimally present in muscles.
Stable isotopes of Mn and Zn were measured in the fish Dicentrarchus labrax (Linnaeus, 1758), Liza ramada (Risso, 1827), and A. anguilla from Lake Bafa (Turkey). The concentrations of these elements did not exceed 50 mg/kg for zinc [45].
In laboratory studies of Morone saxatilis (Walbaum, 1792), it was found that Zn distribution varied significantly within different organs of the fish. The element was primarily associated with the head (55–63%), with only 4% of Zn detected in the intestines [46].
The ability of fish to regulate the levels of certain essential elements within their organisms is discussed in [47]. Reinfelder et al. suggest that the concentrations of most trace elements in fish tissues are regulated through a feedback mechanism. According to the authors, the mechanism by which fish regulate the accumulation of trace elements likely involves concentration-dependent changes in intestinal absorption or adaptive modifications in excretory pathways. The degree of regulation may also vary across different tissues. This implies that the increase in element content within tissues is not necessarily proportional to its concentration in the diet. Observations on the accumulation of stable zinc in O. mykiss during laboratory studies revealed that Zn levels in the blood plasma of this species were regulated within a narrow range. It was also found that Zn concentrations in muscle tissue remained relatively constant, regardless of its concentration in food and water.
Research on the accumulation of stable zinc in Lutjanus argentimaculatus (Forsskål, 1775) under laboratory conditions indicates the existence of regulation mechanisms for Zn levels within fish [48]. Dietary intake is crucial for maintaining metal levels in various fish tissues, though the authors stress that the absorption of metals from water cannot be ignored.
Experiments on the accumulation of stable zinc in two different fish species (Colossoma macropomum (Cuvier, 1818) and Trichogaster trichopterus var. Marble (Pallas, 1770)) revealed that Zn concentrations in the fish were higher than in the water [49]. This study also emphasized that different marine biota species have varying capacities for Zn accumulation.

6. Summary

The bioaccumulation of manganese (54Mn), cobalt (60Co), and zinc (65Zn) in different fish species and their redistribution within the food chain may contribute to long-term ecological disruptions. Changes in fish physiology, reproductive system, and survival rates could alter population dynamics, potentially affecting entire aquatic ecosystems. Understanding the accumulation of these radionuclides in fish is crucial for assessing their potential risks to aquatic organisms and human consumers.

6.1. Key Findings and Their Implications

Variability in Accumulation Across Organs and Tissues: The accumulation of 54Mn, 60Co, and 65Zn varies significantly among different fish organs and tissues. External organs such as gills and skin serve as primary entry points, while internal organs, particularly the kidneys and liver, often exhibit the highest concentrations of radionuclides. These differences are influenced by species-specific physiological and ecological factors.
Pathways of 54Mn, 60Co, and 65Zn Entry: Food intake is the primary pathway for radionuclide accumulation in fish, although direct absorption from water is also a contributing factor. This finding underscores the importance of studying trophic transfer processes and biomagnification potential within aquatic food chain.
Influence of Trophic Levels: The concentration of radionuclides generally decreases with increasing trophic levels, suggesting a dilution effect in the food chain. While higher trophic-level fish exhibit lower concentrations, potential risks to human consumers remain, particularly from species that show high bioaccumulation tendencies.
Radionuclide Concentrations in Muscle Tissue: Muscle tissue, the primary component consumed by humans, consistently exhibits the lowest radionuclide concentrations. Nevertheless, continued monitoring is essential to evaluate the long-term health risks associated with consuming fish from contaminated environments.
Potential for Physiological Regulation: Some studies indicate that fish have regulatory mechanisms to control concentrations of essential elements, including both stable and radioactive isotopes of manganese, cobalt, and zinc. Understanding these mechanisms could enhance predictive models for radionuclide distribution in aquatic organisms.

6.2. Limitations and Challenges

While significant progress has been made in understanding radionuclide accumulation in fish, several challenges complicate data interpretation and comparison:
Variability in Experimental Conditions: Differences in water chemistry, temperature, sediment composition, and ecological interactions across studies make direct comparisons challenging. Variations in experimental setups, such as exposure durations, radionuclide concentrations, and species selection, further contribute to inconsistencies in findings.
Challenges in Comparing Historical and Recent Data: Older studies often relied on different detection methods, making it difficult to directly compare historical and contemporary radionuclide concentrations. Advances in analytical techniques have improved sensitivity and accuracy, but discrepancies between past and present data persist.
Potential Biases in Literature: The reviewed studies exhibit variations in sample sizes, species selection, and data reporting methodologies. Additionally, studies where these radionuclides were not detected or detected at low concentrations, especially before the Chornobyl accident, were likely conducted during radioecological monitoring but never publicly reported. This could influence the perceived magnitude of radionuclide accumulation trends.
Knowledge Gaps in Long-Term Ecological Effects: Despite extensive research, the long-term ecological effects of short-lived radionuclides on fish health, reproductive system, and population dynamics remain poorly understood. Further investigation is needed to determine the potential chronic impacts of radionuclide exposure on aquatic ecosystems.

6.3. Future Research Directions

Given the remaining knowledge gaps, future research should focus on:
Trophic Transfer and Biomagnification Studies: Investigating how 54Mn, 60Co, and 65Zn transfer through aquatic food chain and assessing their biomagnification potential.
Long-Term Monitoring Programs: Establishing comprehensive, standardized monitoring programs to track changes in radionuclide concentrations over time and across different environmental conditions. Longitudinal studies assessing radionuclide concentrations in fish tissues and sediments can help determine trends and predict potential long-term consequences. Advanced bioindicators, such as species with higher accumulation tendencies, could be utilized for early detection of contamination events. Additionally, implementing standardized methodologies for sampling and analysis will improve data comparability across different regions and timeframes.
Multi-Stressor Assessments: Evaluating the combined effects of radionuclide exposure alongside other environmental stressors, such as pollution, climate change, and habitat degradation.
Improved Policy and Management Strategies: Strengthening regulations on radioactive discharge into aquatic environments and fostering collaboration between environmental scientists, policymakers, and fishery managers to mitigate contamination risks. The insights gained from this study could inform regulatory policies for environmental and public health protection. Authorities should establish permissible levels of these radionuclides in commercially available fish to mitigate human exposure risks. Strengthening regulations regarding radioactive waste disposal and nuclear facility management is crucial for preventing further contamination. Education and public awareness campaigns can also help communities make informed decisions regarding fish consumption in affected areas.
By expanding discussions on ecological consequences, health risks, and policy interventions, this research can significantly enhance its impact, contributing to more effective environmental protection and public safety measures.

7. Conclusions

The study of manganese (54Mn), cobalt (60Co), and zinc (65Zn) radionuclide accumulation in fish highlights key environmental and public health concerns. Accumulation patterns vary across organs, with external tissues facilitating initial exposure and internal organs exhibiting the highest concentrations, particularly the liver and kidneys. Food intake remains the dominant pathway for radionuclide entry, though waterborne absorption also plays a role.
Radionuclide concentrations tend to decrease at higher trophic levels, suggesting a dilution effect in the food web. However, species prone to bioaccumulation may still pose risks to human consumers. Muscle tissue, the main part consumed by humans, generally contains the lowest concentrations, yet ongoing monitoring is necessary to assess long-term exposure effects.
Some fish species exhibit regulatory mechanisms influencing radionuclide retention, providing insight into species-specific contamination responses.
Future research should prioritize the study of trophic transfer, biomagnification, and the interplay of radionuclides with other environmental stressors. Enhanced regulatory measures and interdisciplinary collaboration among scientists, policymakers, and fishery managers are essential for mitigating contamination risks and ensuring the safety of aquatic ecosystems and food resources.

Author Contributions

Conceptualisation, N.E.Z. and V.S.; methodology, N.E.Z. and L.P.P.; formal analysis, O.S.B.; data curation, N.E.Z. and O.S.B.; writing—original draft preparation, N.E.Z., L.P.P. and O.S.B.; writing—review and editing, N.E.Z. and V.S.; visualisation, L.P.P. and V.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

Open Access Funding by the University for Continuing Education Krems.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Data are contained within the article.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

  1. Zarubin, O.L. Dynamics of 137Cs Content in Fish (Using the Chornobyl Nuclear Power Plant Cooling Pond as an Example). Ph.D. Thesis, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, Institute for Nuclear Research, Kyiv, Ukraine, 2003. (In Ukrainian). [Google Scholar]
  2. Bé, M.-M.; Chisté, V.; Dulieu, C.; Browne, E.; Baglin, C.; Chechev, V.; Kuzmenko, N.; Helmer, R.; Kondev, F.; MacMahon, D.; et al. Table of Radionuclides; Monographie BIPM-5; Bureau International des Poids et Mesures: Pavillon de Breteuil, France, 2006; Volume 3, ISBN 92-822-2218-7.
  3. Poston, T.M.; Klopfer, D.C. A Literature Review of the Concentration Ratios of Selected Radionuclides in Freshwater and Marine Fish; Battelle: Columbus, OH, USA, 1986. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Kotze, P.; du Prezz, H.H.; van Vuren, J.H.J. Bioaccumulation of Copper and Zinc in Oreochromis mossambicus and Clarias gariepinus from the Olifants River, Mpumalanga, South Africa. Water SA 1999, 25, 99–110. [Google Scholar]
  5. Romanenko, V.D. Fundamentals of Hydroecology; Geneza: Kyiv, Ukraine, 2004; p. 664. ISBN 966-504-358-7. (In Ukrainian) [Google Scholar]
  6. Schelske, C.L.; Wolfe, D.A.; Hoss, D.E. Ecological Implications of Fallout Radioactivity Accumulated by Estuarine Fishes and Mollusks; U.S. Department of Energy: Washington, DC, USA, 1973.
  7. Jenkins, C.E. Radionuclide Distribution in Pacific Salmon. Health Phys. 1969, 17, 507–512. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  8. Dauble, D.D.; Price, K.R.; Poston, T.M. Radionuclides Concentrations in White Sturgeon from the Columbia River; U.S. Department of Energy: Washington, DC, USA, 1993.
  9. Honstead, J.F.; Brady, D.N. The uptake and retention of 32P and 65Zn from the consumption of Columbia river fish. Health Phys. 1967, 13, 455–463. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  10. Suzuki, Y.; Nakahara, M.; Nakamura, R.; Ueda, T. Roles of Food and Sea Water in the Accumulation of Radionuclides by Marine Fish. Bull. Jpn. Soc. Sci. Fish. 1979, 45, 1409–1416. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Pentreath, R.J. The accumulation and retention of 65Zn and 54Mn by the plaice, Pleuronectes platessa L. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 1973, 12, 1–18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Pentreath, R.J. The accumulation from sea water of 65Zn, 54Mn, 58Co and 59Fe by the thornback ray, Raja clavata L. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 1973, 12, 327–334. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Ueda, T.; Nakahara, M.; Nakamura, R. Accumulation of 60Co by Marine Organisms under Reduction of Radioactivity in Sea Water. Bull. Jpn. Soc. Sci. Fish. 1985, 51, 1811–1816. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Pentreath, R.J. The accumulation and retention of 59Fe and 58Co by the plaice, Pleuronectes platessa L. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 1973, 12, 315–326. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Nicolas, C.; Kirchman, R. Contamination of Freshwater Fish by 54Mn and 60Co; Report EUR 5167 e D.G. XIII-C.I.D. 29; Commission of the European Communities: Brussels, Belgium, 1974.
  16. Koyanagi, T.; Nakahara, M.; Iimura, M. Absorption of Sediment-bound Radionuclides through the Digestive Tract of Marine Demersal Fishes. J. Radiat. Res. 1978, 19, 295–305. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Kryshev, I.I.; Ryabov, I.N.; Chumak, V.K.; Zarubin, O.L.; Blinova, L.D.; Nikitin, A.I. Radioecological Processes in the cooling Pond of the Chernobyl NPP. In Radioecological Consequences of the Chernobyl Accident; Nuclear Society of the USSR: Moscow, Russia, 1991; pp. 54–70. (In Russian) [Google Scholar]
  18. Zarubin, O.L.; Zalisky, O.O. Radioactive contamination of fish in the cooling pond of the Chornobyl Nuclear Power Plant. Bull. Ecol. Status Exclusion Zone Zone Unconditional Resettl. 2000, 16, 39–43. (In Ukrainian) [Google Scholar]
  19. Zarubin, O.L.; Tryshyn, V.V. Radioactive Contamination of Freshwater Ecosystems of the 30-km Zone of the Chornobyl nuclear Power Plant. Natural Studies. In Chernobyl Exclusion Zone; Naukova Dumka: Kyiv, Ukraine, 2001; pp. 100–120. (In Ukrainian) [Google Scholar]
  20. Kazakov, S.V. Management of Radiation State of Cooling Ponds of NPPs; Technika: Kyiv, Ukraine, 1995; p. 192. (In Russian) [Google Scholar]
  21. Zarubin, O.L. Dynamics of radionuclide content in the water of the cooling pond of the Chornobyl Nuclear Power Plant (1978–2004). Nucl. Phys. At. Energy 2006, 1, 73–85. (In Russian) [Google Scholar]
  22. Zarubin, O.L. The content of 54Mn in the ecosystem of the cooling pond of the Chornobyl nuclear power plant. Bull. Ecol. Status Exclusion Zone Zone Unconditional Resettl. 2008, 2, 26–30. (In Ukrainian) [Google Scholar]
  23. Zarubin, O.L. The content of 60Co in the components of the ecosystem of the cooling pond of the Chornobyl nuclear power plant. Bull. Ecol. Status Exclusion Zone Zone Unconditional Resettl. 2009, 2, 29–36. (In Ukrainian) [Google Scholar]
  24. Zarubin, O.L. The content of 65Zn in fish of the cooling pond of the Chornobyl nuclear power plant. Bull. Ecol. Status Exclusion Zone Zone Unconditional Resettl. 2008, 1, 30–34. (In Ukrainian) [Google Scholar]
  25. Bezhenar, R.; Kim, K.O.; Maderich, V.; de With, G.; Jung, K.T. Multi-compartment kinetic-allometric (MCKA) model of radionuclide bioaccumulation in marine fish. Biogeosciences 2021, 18, 2591–2607. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Zarubin, O.L.; Laktionov, V.A.; Moshna, B.O.; Babenko, V.V.; Litvinskaja, T.A.; Kostyuk, V.A.; Malyuk, I.A. Artificial radionuclides in freshwater fish of Ukraine after the Chornobyl accident. Nucl. Phys. At. Energy 2011, 12, 192–197. (In Russian) [Google Scholar]
  27. Kaunelienė, D. Features of 137Cs and 60Co accumulation in fish of Lake Drūkšiai and its numerical modeling. Zool. Ecol. 2014, 24, 177–184. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Adam, C.; Garnier-Laplace, J.; Baudin, J.P. Uptake from water, release and tissue distribution of 54Mn in the rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mikiss Walbaum). Environ. Pollut. 1997, 97, 29–38. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  29. Jeffree, R.A.; Markich, S.; Oberhänsli, F.; Teyssié, J.L. Internal distributions of a radio-element array in cartilaginous and bony marine fishes: Different and heterogeneous. J. Environ. Radioact. 2021, 237, 106709. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Baudin, J.P.; Véran, M.P.; Adam, C.; Garnier-Laplace, J. 60Co transfer from water to the rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mikiss Walbaum). Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 1997, 33, 230–237. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  31. Jeffree, R.A.; Warnau, M.; Oberhaensli, F.; Teyssie, J.-L. Bioacumulation from seawater of heavy metals and radionuclides by encased embryos of the spotted dogfish Scyliorhinus canicula. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2006, 52, 1278–1286. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Hattink, J.; De Boeck, G.; Blust, R. Toxicity, accumulation, and retention of zinc by carp under normoxic and hypoxic conditions. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 2006, 25, 87–96. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  33. Jeng, S.-S.; Lian, J.-L. Comparison of Zinc Absorption between Common Carp and Other Fresh Water Fishes. Zool. Stud. 1994, 33, 78–85. [Google Scholar]
  34. Mathews, T.; Fisher, N.S. Dominance of dietary intake of metals in marine elasmobranch and teleost fish. Sci. Total Environ. 2009, 407, 5156–5161. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  35. Jeffree, R.A.; Warnau, M.; Teyssie, J.-L.; Markich, S.J. Comparison of the bioaccumulation from seawater and depuration of heavy metals and radionuclides in the spotted dogfish Scyliorhinus canicula (Chondrichthys) and the turbot Psetta maxima (Actinopterygii: Teleostei). Sci. Total Environ. 2006, 368, 839–852. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  36. Reinfelder, J.R.; Fisher, N.S. Retention of elements absorbed by juvenile fish (Menidia menidia, Menidia beryllina) from zooplankton prey. Limnol. Oceanogr. 1994, 39, 1783–1789. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Pouil, S.; Bustamante, P.; Warnau, M.; Metian, M. Overview of trace elements trophic transfer in fish through the concept of assimilation efficiency. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 2018, 588, 243–254. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Campbell, L.M.; Norstrom, R.J.; Hobson, K.A.; Muir, D.C.G.; Backus, S.; Fisk, A.T. Mercury and other trace elements in a pelagic Arctic marine food web (Northwater Polynya, Baffin Bay). Sci. Total Environ. 2005, 351–352, 247–263. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Canli, M.; Atli, G. The relationships between heavy metal (Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Pb, Zn) levels and the size of six Mediterranean fish species. Environ. Poll. 2003, 121, 129–136. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  40. Malik, D.S.; Maurya, P.K. Heavy metal concentration in water, sediment, and tissues of fish species (Heteropneustis fossilis and Puntius ticto) from Kali River, India. Toxicol. Environ. Chem. 2014, 96, 1195–1206. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Cid, B.P.; Boia, C.; Pombo, L.; Rebelo, E. Determination of trace metals in fish species of the Ria de Aveiro (Portugal) by electrothermal atomic absorption spectrometry. Food Chem. 2001, 75, 93–100. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Gupta, A.; Rai, D.K.; Pandey, R.S.; Sharma, B. Analysis of some heavy metals in the riverine water, sediments and fish from river Ganges at Allahabad. Environ. Monit. Assess. 2009, 157, 449–458. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Squadrone, S.; Brizio, P.; Stella, C.; Mantia, M.; Favaro, L.; Biancani, B.; Gridelli, S.; Da Rugna, C.; Abete, M.C. Differential Bioaccumulation of Trace Elements and Rare Earth Elements in the Muscle, Kidneys, and Liver of the Invasive Indo-Pacific Lionfish (Pterois spp.) from Cuba. Biol. Trace Elem. Res. 2020, 196, 262–271. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  44. Usero, J.; Izquierdo, C.; Morillo, J.; Gracia, I. Heavy metals in fish (Solea vulgaris, Anguilla anguilla and Liza aurata) from salt marshes on the southern Atlantic coast of Spain. Environ. Int. 2004, 29, 949–956. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. Manav, R.; Görgün, A.G.; Filizok, I. Radionuclides (210Po and 210Pb) and Some Heavy Metals in Fish and Sediments in Lake Bafa, Turkey, and the Contribution of 210Po to the Radiation Dose. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2016, 13, 1113. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Baines, S.B.; Fisher, N.S.; Stewart, R. Assimilation and retention of selenium and other trace elements from crustacean food by juvenile striped bass (Morone saxatilis). Limnol. Ocean. 2002, 47, 646–655. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. Reinfelder, J.R.; Fisher, N.S.; Luoma, S.N.; Nichols, J.W.; Wang, W.-X. Trace element trophic transfer in aquatic organisms: A critique of the kinetic model approach. Sci. Total Environ. 1998, 219, 117–135. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  48. Xu, Y.; Wang, W.-X. Exposure and potential food chain transfer factor of Cd, Se and Zn in marine fish Lutjanus argentimaculatus. Mar. Ecol. Prog. 2002, 238, 173–186. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Al Mustawa, M.; Budiawan, B.; Suseno, H. The effect of zinc speciation and its concentration on bioaccumulation in pomfret (Colossoma macropomum) and sepat fish (Trichogaster Trichopterus). Trends Sci. 2023, 20, 4047. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Figure 1. Cooling pond of Chornobyl NPP. The scale bar represents a distance of 1 km. The original image was sourced from the Google Earth (version 10.73.0.1) historical imagery photography databank (2013) and subsequently modified in BioRender (Semak, V. (2025); https://BioRender.com/d10e344 (accessed on 17 February 2025)).
Figure 1. Cooling pond of Chornobyl NPP. The scale bar represents a distance of 1 km. The original image was sourced from the Google Earth (version 10.73.0.1) historical imagery photography databank (2013) and subsequently modified in BioRender (Semak, V. (2025); https://BioRender.com/d10e344 (accessed on 17 February 2025)).
Fishes 10 00090 g001
Figure 2. Cooling pond of Chornobyl NPP, view of the stream-dividing dam, 2013 (Photo by N. Zarubina).
Figure 2. Cooling pond of Chornobyl NPP, view of the stream-dividing dam, 2013 (Photo by N. Zarubina).
Fishes 10 00090 g002
Figure 3. Cooling pond of Chornobyl NPP, view from the discharge channel, with a partially submerged dam in the foreground, 2009 (photo by N. Zarubina).
Figure 3. Cooling pond of Chornobyl NPP, view from the discharge channel, with a partially submerged dam in the foreground, 2009 (photo by N. Zarubina).
Fishes 10 00090 g003
Figure 4. Pathways of 54Mn, 60Co, and 65Zn entry into fish of different trophic levels. Created in BioRender (Semak, V. (2025); https://BioRender.com/r83o359 (accessed on 17 February 2025)).
Figure 4. Pathways of 54Mn, 60Co, and 65Zn entry into fish of different trophic levels. Created in BioRender (Semak, V. (2025); https://BioRender.com/r83o359 (accessed on 17 February 2025)).
Fishes 10 00090 g004
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Zarubina, N.E.; Semak, V.; Ponomarenko, L.P.; Burdo, O.S. Content of Short-Lived Radionuclides (54Mn, 60Co, and 65Zn) in Fish. Fishes 2025, 10, 90. https://doi.org/10.3390/fishes10030090

AMA Style

Zarubina NE, Semak V, Ponomarenko LP, Burdo OS. Content of Short-Lived Radionuclides (54Mn, 60Co, and 65Zn) in Fish. Fishes. 2025; 10(3):90. https://doi.org/10.3390/fishes10030090

Chicago/Turabian Style

Zarubina, Nataliia E., Vladislav Semak, Liliia P. Ponomarenko, and Oleg S. Burdo. 2025. "Content of Short-Lived Radionuclides (54Mn, 60Co, and 65Zn) in Fish" Fishes 10, no. 3: 90. https://doi.org/10.3390/fishes10030090

APA Style

Zarubina, N. E., Semak, V., Ponomarenko, L. P., & Burdo, O. S. (2025). Content of Short-Lived Radionuclides (54Mn, 60Co, and 65Zn) in Fish. Fishes, 10(3), 90. https://doi.org/10.3390/fishes10030090

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop