Rediscovering Our Roots: Character Education in Pre-Colonial Africa and Its Contemporary Relevance in the Greater Horn of Africa

Abstract

This study critically examines the structure, mechanisms, and enduring relevance of character education embedded in the indigenous knowledge systems of the Greater Horn of Africa. Pre-colonial African societies upheld sophisticated educational frameworks that emphasized holistic moral formation and communal character development, values that continue to influence rural communities today. Drawing on an integrative literature review, the paper identifies preparationism, functionalism, and communalism as core philosophical foundations shaping these systems. Moral and civic values were cultivated through informal, lifelong learning, guided by the collaborative roles of the home and community in fostering respect, responsibility, and social cohesion. Central pedagogical instruments included initiation rites, which provided structured moral instruction, and oral literature, which transmitted ethical reasoning and cultural wisdom. The findings underscore the continued relevance of indigenous character education in addressing contemporary societal challenges and advocate for Decolonizing the Mind as a pathway to revitalizing these traditions. The study concludes that reformed rites of passage, when purged of harmful elements, preserve cultural identity and strengthen communal ethics, offering a sustainable model for moral and civic education in modern Horn of African contexts.

1. Introduction

Pre-colonial Africa maintained comprehensive, functional educational systems centered on holistic moral formation and communal character development, anticipating the values often later attributed solely to the influence of European Christian missionaries, colonial powers, and Arab Islamic expansion (Reagan 2018). While the practice of African indigenous education was prevalent before colonization, its essential principles and certain elements demonstrably persist within contemporary rural communities, providing a vital source of traditional knowledge. This paper critically investigates the structure, mechanisms, and enduring relevance of character education embedded within the indigenous knowledge systems of the Greater Horn of Africa (Ethiopia, Eritrea, the Sudan, Djibouti, Somalia and Kenya).

The analysis proceeds by establishing a comprehensive conceptual foundation and then detailing the progression of character formation through three primary stages of indigenous pedagogy. Initially, the conceptual and methodological framework is defined, clarifying the operational terms and the approach adopted for reviewing the relevant literature. Using search engines such as Google Scholar and OneSearch relevant literature was searched using key terms such as “indigenous African education, traditional education, character education within indigenous systems, methods of education in the pre-colonial era, and decolonization”. These search terms were further refined to focus specifically on the Greater Horn of Africa. Relevant articles and books aligned with the topic and scope of the study were then selected. The discussion then transitions to explore the structural and philosophical underpinnings of this system, delineating the general principles of African indigenous education to demonstrate its holistic nature and its deliberate avoidance of a formalized, subject-specific curriculum. This section will specifically address the foundational role of the family, emphasizing the home as the first school: the custodian role of mothers, and the complementary contributions of the broader extended family in early childhood character development.

The paper subsequently examines the primary mechanisms through which character is transmitted and reinforced across the lifecycle. We first analyze initiation rites as a dominant practice for codifying and reinforcing communal values, discussing their ethical reinterpretation and potential for positive practice in contemporary society. This is followed by an interrogation of the pedagogical relevance of oral literature, including tales, proverbs, and riddles, in character expansion and its applicability within modern educational settings.

Finally, the paper culminates by situating the relevance of these indigenous models within the contemporary Greater Horn African society, a context now defined by co-existing indigenous and foreign education systems. This necessitates a critical discussion on the imperative of decolonizing the mind as a crucial step for rediscovering and valuing indigenous roots following the lasting impact of colonialism. Acknowledging the inherent difficulties in sourcing historical materials, the conclusion will address the challenges of addressing historiographical limitations in documenting pre-colonial African education.

2. Research Design: Integrative Review of Literature

This study employs an integrative review of literature as its research design. The article is grounded in diverse sources, including peer-reviewed journal articles, books, online materials, and oral traditions from different parts of Africa, though the main focus is the Greater Horn of Africa. The integrative review methodology allows for the inclusion of both qualitative and quantitative studies, providing a comprehensive and holistic understanding of a phenomenon (Whittemore and Knafl 2005).

Using this approach, character education in indigenous African societies is analyzed, compared, and synthesized from the empirical and theoretical literature to develop new frameworks, insights, or perspectives (Torraco 2005). The process involves several systematic stages: identifying the problem or topic of interest, defining inclusion and exclusion criteria, conducting a rigorous literature search, evaluating the quality of the sources, and synthesizing the data to reveal patterns, relationships, and research gaps (Whittemore and Knafl 2005; Snyder 2019). Unlike a purely systematic or meta-analytic review, this approach values conceptual and methodological diversity, combining evidence from multiple traditions to enrich understanding (Torraco 2005).

The specific objectives of the integrative review are:

• To demonstrate that African indigenous societies had long developed and practiced forms of character education through informal community systems prior to colonial influence.
• To establish the enduring relevance of these indigenous systems in shaping moral and civic values within their societies and in current contemporary contexts.
• To argue that the mere replacement of indigenous systems with foreign, Western-influenced educational models has often failed to address local needs, and that revitalizing indigenous approaches offers valuable solutions for contemporary contexts.
• To encourage a reconnection with African heritage and the broader integration of character education within both formal and informal settings.

The scope of the review spans literature from West, Southern, and Eastern Africa, with particular emphasis on Greater Horn of Africa. This focus enables the researcher to draw insights from broader African scholarship while addressing indigenous educational practices in Greater Horn of Africa. Through this integrative review, the study seeks to bridge theoretical and contextual gaps and to contribute to the ongoing discourse on character education within local cultural frameworks.

3. Operational Definition of Key Terms

3.1. African Indigenous Education

A lifelong, holistic learning process embedded in African cultures, transmitted through family, community, and rituals, emphasizing practical skills, moral development, and social responsibility.

3.2. African Initiation Rites

Ritualized ceremonies marking social or life transitions, such as adolescence or adulthood, through which moral, spiritual, and cultural knowledge is transmitted to the younger generation.

3.3. African Philosophy of Education

An educational worldview rooted in African cultural values, emphasizing communalism, moral integrity, respect, harmony, and the holistic intellectual, social, and spiritual development of individuals.

3.4. Character Education

A deliberate educational approach aimed at developing moral, ethical, and civic virtues in individuals through instruction, social modeling, reflection, and community engagement. In African contexts, it integrates indigenous cultural values, communal responsibilities, and moral traditions alongside formal schooling.

3.5. Colonialism

A system of foreign domination (approximately late 18th century to mid-20th century) involving political control, economic exploitation, and cultural imposition over African societies by external powers.

3.6. Formal Education

Organized, curriculum-based instruction with structured timetables, certified teachers, assessments, and official accreditation recognized by institutions.

3.7. Head of Household

In pre-colonial African societies, “heads of households” were typically senior male figures, fathers or husbands; responsible for managing family affairs, overseeing multiple wives and children in polygamous households (though monogamous families also existed such as in Ethiopia and Eritrea), ensuring social, economic, and moral guidance within the extended family.

3.8. Informal Education

Unstructured, lifelong learning occurring through daily interactions, observation, storytelling, and community participation without formal curriculum or assessment.

3.9. Indigenous

Knowledge, beliefs, and practices originating within African communities, developed through generations and rooted in local cultural contexts.

3.10. Non-Formal Education

Planned educational activities outside formal systems, flexible in structure, and often tailored to community or adult learning needs.

3.11. Pre-Colonial

The historical period before significant foreign intervention (roughly before the late 18th century), when African societies were self-governed, maintaining indigenous political, educational, and cultural systems.

3.12. Traditional

Cultural norms, values, and customs inherited and transmitted across generations, shaping moral conduct and communal identity in African life.

4. Character Education as Assimilated Within Indigenous Education

The word ‘education’ is derived from the Latin term ‘educare,’ meaning “to lead, to draw out,” or “to guide” (Gioia 2019), implying the process of “bringing up a child to maturity.” From the African indigenous perspective, B. Abidogun (2022) and J. Abidogun and Falola (2020) explained it as systems is a holistic process of transmitting knowledge, skills, values, and moral norms across generations, often through oral literature, rituals, and communal participation, aimed at shaping responsible, ethical individuals who contribute to societal cohesion. Indigenous societies in the Greater Horn of Africa, encompassing modern-day Ethiopia, Eritrea, Sudan, South Sudan, Kenya, Djibouti and Somalia, began educating their young long before sustained contact with the outside world, such as Europe, the Arab world, and the Americas (Mosweunyane 2013). Education in these societies was a holistic and continuous process rooted in daily life, work, and social interaction rather than confined to formal institutions. With few exceptions, such as Ethiopian Orthodox ‘Zema-Bet’ schooling or Quranic learning in Sudan and Somalia, pre-colonial systems of education were largely informal, lacking written curricula, fixed timetables, or formal classrooms (Sifuna 1990).

Indigenous African education aimed at achieving universal harmony, encompassing relationships among the living, the non-living, and the spiritual realm, ensuring societal effectiveness and spiritual balance while nurturing skilled, responsible, and ethical individuals. Learning was experiential and embedded within community life. Children acquired knowledge and values through observation, imitation, participation, apprenticeship, and oral traditions, including proverbs, folktales, songs, and rituals. Education was thus a moral and cultural journey designed to produce individuals who were not only skilled and knowledgeable but also morally upright and socially responsible (Ajira 2004; B. Abidogun 2022; Mbiti 1990). Education, in this sense, was broader than mere schooling; it involved leading a young person toward maturity, wisdom, and moral integrity through a variety of formal, non-formal, and informal approaches (Bennaars et al. 1994).

A central goal of indigenous education in the Greater Horn of Africa was the preservation and transmission of communal values and the moral character necessary for social cohesion. Every adult served as a teacher, and every young person was a learner within the community. The well-known African proverb, “It takes a village to raise a child,” encapsulates this communal philosophy: childrearing and education were collective responsibilities shared among parents, relatives, elders, and neighbors (Makoba 2017). Through this system, knowledge, values, and social norms were passed from generation to generation, ensuring that the community’s cultural and ethical foundations remained intact.

Moral education was particularly emphasized as an indispensable aspect of indigenous instruction. The overarching aim was to promote good morals and social conduct, condemning any action or behavior that threatened the harmony or moral integrity of the group (Makoba 2017). As Ajira (2004) noted, every society is concerned with fostering moral character in children and forming responsible citizens. Thus, traditional education sought to nurture learners who developed physically, mentally, emotionally, morally, and socially, viewing these dimensions as inseparable aspects of human development.

In Ethiopia, for instance, indigenous education systems such as ‘Zema-Bet’ and ‘Qene-Bet’ were not limited to literacy or religious instruction. They cultivated discipline, respect, humility, and service to others virtues considered essential for both personal growth and communal harmony (Woldegiyorgis 2016; Tekeste 1990). Similarly, in Eritrea, oral traditions, initiation rituals, and storytelling were instrumental in shaping children’s understanding of courage, honesty, and social responsibility. Among Somali and Sudanese communities, the recitation of genealogies, the memorization of proverbs, and participation in Quranic schools reinforced moral codes that valued justice, hospitality, and loyalty.

Another key goal of this education was to instill appreciation for one’s culture and respect for authority and traditional laws. Elders, parents, grandparents, and other authority figures played distinct roles in narrating the community’s history, recounting the heroic deeds of ancestors, and explaining the customs that governed social interactions such as marriage, inheritance, conflict resolution, and communal ceremonies (Makoba 2017). These narratives were more than stories; they were moral lessons that helped shape the ethical worldview of the youth.

Matemba (2010) highlights how moral learning occurred naturally through daily social engagement. He stated, “As children played, worked, worshiped, attended funerals, or participated in community events such as hunting and marriages, they absorbed both the cultural essentials and the moral expectations of their people” (pp. 330–331). This immersion-based approach ensured that moral education was not abstract but lived, reinforcing ethical conduct through consistent practice and observation.

Evenings often served as moments of deliberate moral instruction. Families and community members gathered around the fireplace, where elders used stories, riddles, dances, and songs to convey moral truths. The moral message was clear and consistent: socially acceptable behavior, honesty, generosity, respect for elders, and courage, led to blessings such as prosperity, fertility, fame, and happiness. In contrast, immoral behavior, such as dishonesty, laziness, or disrespect, was believed to bring sickness, poverty, and misfortune (Mbiti 1990). This moral cause-and-effect understanding reinforced the notion that ethical living was essential for both individual well-being and communal survival.

Indigenous education across the Horn of Africa thus served as both moral formation and cultural preservation. It integrated spiritual, social, and practical dimensions of life to nurture responsible adults capable of sustaining the moral order of their societies. In this model, education was not a distinct institutional enterprise but a lifelong process embedded in communal relationships, religious practices, and economic activities.

From this review, therefore, we can see that character education in the pre-colonial Africa, and specifically in the Greater Horn of Africa was deeply relational, moral, and spiritual. It reflected the belief that knowledge and virtue were inseparable and that human flourishing depended on harmony with one’s community and the moral order of the universe. As Mbiti (1990) emphasized, the traditional African worldview connected morality to destiny, ethical conduct determined not only one’s social standing but also divine favor. Therefore, moral formation was not an optional aspect of education but its very essence, ensuring the continuity of culture, identity, and faith across generations.

5. Philosophical Foundations of Character Education in Traditional Africa

African traditional education was deeply rooted in philosophical principles rather than existing in a vacuum, as argued by scholars like Adeyemi and Adeyinka (2003), Achi (2021b), and Njeroge and Bennaars (1990). These principles; preparationism, perennialism, functionalism, communitarianism, and holisticism, were foundational to the education system. Importantly, character education was not a separate discipline but an integral part of the broader indigenous education system (B. Abidogun 2022).

5.1. Preparationism

Preparationism emphasized preparing boys and girls for their future societal roles. For instance, boys were groomed to become breadwinners, family heads, farmers, hunters, warriors, and rulers, while girls were prepared for roles as future wives and mothers. The initial education of a child was typically the responsibility of the mother within the home environment, where girls were taught to raise their children according to societal expectations. For instance, in the Afar pastoralist community of northeastern Ethiopia, stakeholders emphasize the transmission of life-skills and values such as reciprocal caring, sharing, social cohesion, respect for elders and communal responsibility through everyday practices and inter-generational mentorship (Yitbarek et al. (2022). Specifically, elders noted that young Afar girls learn traditional home-building techniques (the so-called “Afar AREE”), pastoralist boys learn herding, mobility and collective livestock management from older men, and all youth observe and engage in the customary conflict-resolution institution known as ‘Med-a’, a system of communal ethics, accountability and shared responsibility (Yitbarek et al. 2022). These practices form an informal “school of life” where moral and social character are shaped through observation, apprenticeship, communal duty and ritual-informed living, rather than formal classroom instruction. Similarly, in rural Tanzania among the Swahili, girls are taught social etiquette and behavior by older women or aunts, including how to respect elders, interact with in-laws, and maintain harmonious relationships within the extended family (Kimaro and Njogu 2021). Essential virtues like humility, patience, and respect are emphasized as crucial for a successful marriage and family life (Falen 2008; Shija 2012; Swantz 1985; Mbiti 1990).

5.2. Perennialism

Perennialism in African indigenous education emphasizes the preservation of traditional systems, values, and moral codes, ensuring that what is taught remains constant and transmitted across generations. Education was inseparable from rituals, ceremonies, and everyday social practices that safeguarded cultural identity and continuity (Ocitti 1994; B. Abidogun 2022). This philosophical orientation provided stability within society by reinforcing established customs, laws, and moral norms, thereby strengthening social cohesion and a shared sense of belonging (Bassey 1999; Adeyemi and Adeyinka 2003).

In South Sudan, among the Dinka and Nuer peoples, perennialism is vividly expressed through ritualized moral instruction and communal ceremonies. Initiation rites, cattle-related rituals, and age-set traditions transmit obligations, ethical codes, and civic responsibilities from elders to youth. These rituals function as living archives of moral and social law, cultivating virtues such as respect for elders, reciprocity, and social responsibility, while serving as informal “schools” that sustain intergenerational cohesion (Kane n.d.). Similarly, in parts of Sudan, rites of passage, such as puberty rituals, scarification, and household-based ceremonies, preserve gender roles, family responsibilities, and communal ethics. Health and ritual related practices integrated into daily life reinforce enduring norms of behavior and respect for cultural continuity. Even where some practices are being reinterpreted, the underlying principle of moral education through shared tradition continues to stabilize and transmit the ethical foundations of community life (Thomas 2021).

5.3. Functionalism

The concept of functionalism emphasized the practical purpose of education, ensuring that learning served immediate needs. Students were not only prepared for the future but were also productive as they learned. Tasks such as tending animals, collecting firewood, and showing obedience to elders were integral parts of their education, fulfilling societal expectations according to age and gender. Boys were prepared to become heads of households and breadwinners, while girls were equipped with skills for domestic roles like cooking, weaving, and childcare (Achi 2021b). This approach instilled a sense of responsibility and productivity from a young age. The Tigriyna-Eritrean proverb, “As a skin is malleable when it is fresh, the character of a child can be molded in its young and tender age,” reflects this belief in early character formation. Engaging in practical tasks also taught children the value of hard work, perseverance, and resourcefulness; traits essential for personal development and community service (Nsamenang 2006). By contributing to the household and community, children learned the importance of cooperation and the rewards of working for the common good.

5.4. Communalism

Communalism is a core philosophical foundation of African life, resonating with the Ubuntu principle of shared humanity and mutual dependence. In this worldview, the individual exists because of and for the community. Character education, therefore, embraced the essence of the community and aimed to promote communal welfare. Education was not just about personal achievement but about contributing to the welfare and cohesion of the community (Adeyemi and Adeyinka 2003). For example, among the Somali people, communalism manifests through kinship-based social structures that emphasize collective responsibility, mutual aid, and moral interdependence. The Somali proverb ‘Nin walba waa walaalkiis’ (“Every person is his brother’s keeper”) reflects this moral outlook, where personal well-being is inseparable from communal welfare. Education, therefore, is not confined to formal schooling but is embedded in daily interactions, pastoral cooperation, and clan-based mentorship, all designed to preserve harmony and moral order (Lewis 1998). In addition, Somali communal values are reinforced through the Xeer system, customary law orally transmitted across generations; which regulates social behavior, resolves conflicts, and instills shared ethical obligations among clan members (UNESCO 2024). In this system, elders serve as moral educators, mediators, and custodians of collective wisdom, embodying the belief that “a child belongs to the community.” The collective nature of Somali pastoral life, where resources, herding duties, and even rites of passage are communally shared, illustrates how moral formation and survival are inherently tied to the group (Samatar 2016). Thus, Somali communalism exemplifies an enduring indigenous philosophy where education nurtures empathy, respect, and social cohesion, ensuring that moral and cultural continuity are sustained through communal participation (Adeyemi and Adeyinka 2003; Waghid 2014).

5.5. Holisticism

The final philosophical foundation of African traditional education is holisticism, or the concept of multiple preparation. This principle meant that there was no specialization in African traditional education. Adults were self-sufficient in various skills, including farming, animal husbandry, making household tools, understanding tribal laws, and building houses; skills relevant to their environment and gender (Adeyemi and Adeyinka 2003). Indigenous African education was inherently holistic, integrating moral, social, intellectual, and spiritual development into a single, cohesive educational experience (Waghid 2014; Ocitti 1994). This comprehensive approach ensured that learners grew in a balanced way, with an emphasis on character formation as much as on intellectual knowledge. The holistic approach also reflected the African worldview of interconnectedness, where the individual was seen as part of a larger community. Education in this context was about contributing to the welfare and cohesion of the community, naturally including teaching values such as respect, responsibility, and cooperation, which are essential for maintaining social harmony and collective well-being (Mbiti 1990).

As Fafunwa (1974) notes, the goal of traditional African education was to produce a well-rounded individual who was socially responsible, intellectually competent, and morally upright. Character education was deeply embedded in daily life, with elders and community leaders serving as role models for younger generations (Ocitti 1994).

The philosophical foundations of traditional African character education, namely preparationism, perennialism, functionalism, communalism, and holisticism, primarily serve the collective interests of the community rather than the individual. Rooted in the African worldview of Ubuntu (“I am because we are”), these philosophies ensure social harmony, moral uprightness, and cultural continuity (Adeyemi and Adeyinka 2003; Waghid 2014). They prepare individuals to fulfill gendered and social roles vital to community survival and cohesion. Education thus reinforces communal values, sustains indigenous knowledge systems, and promotes intergenerational stability by aligning personal growth with collective well-being and societal obligations (Fafunwa 1974; Ocitti 1994; B. Abidogun 2022).

While the underlying goal of character formation is consistent across Africa, its expression varies according to each society’s ecological, cultural, and spiritual contexts. For example, pastoral communities such as the Maasai emphasize bravery and endurance, while agrarian societies like the Yoruba prioritize cooperation and respect (Njeroge and Bennaars 1990; Achi 2021b). Matrilineal societies often give women stronger educational roles than patriarchal ones (Njogu and Orchardson-Mazrui 2013). Similarly, the Ubuntu philosophy in southern Africa stresses collective humanity, whereas among the Tigrinya in Eritrea, early moral discipline is central (Nsamenang 2006). Thus, principles remain shared but are locally adapted to social realities.

6. Character Education Through Initiation Rites

The Greater Horn of Africa is home to a diverse mosaic of ethnic groups, each with its own rich cultural traditions and initiation practices marking the transition from childhood to adulthood. There is no single uniform practice or singular goal behind these rites; rather, each reflects the community’s unique moral vision, social structure, and worldview. Acknowledging this diversity, the present discussion focuses on selected initiation practices where the primary objective is character education; the intentional shaping of moral integrity, discipline, and communal responsibility. When certain practices are identified as harmful or outdated, they are critically examined, and culturally sensitive, healthier alternatives are proposed. Through this lens, initiation is viewed not merely as a rite of passage but as a transformative process of moral formation and social integration.

Initiation rites often serve as profound moral and educational systems through which communities transmit values, responsibilities, and collective identity. For instance, among the Blin and Kunama of Eritrea, Shingelot and Ana Ella test endurance, discipline, and readiness for adult life. In southern Ethiopia, the Hamar bull-jumping (Ukuli Bula) symbolizes courage and maturity, while age-grade initiations among the Gedeo, Borana, and Konso define moral and social progression. Similarly, practices such as ritual seclusion, circumcision, and female rites of passage provide moral instruction and cultural orientation. These initiation ceremonies collectively represent a pedagogical process through which the individual is shaped to embody communal ideals; respect for elders, courage in hardship, and accountability in social life. In exploring these traditions, this section emphasizes the enduring educational essence of initiation in the region: how it molds character, reinforces communal values, and prepares individuals to participate responsibly in society.

Initiation rites or rites of passage have traditionally served as powerful moral and social education systems in African societies. In most communities of the Greater Horn of Africa, these rites historically marked the transition from childhood into adulthood and provided explicit instruction concerning communal roles, ethics, self-discipline, respect, and responsibility. They also acted as social mechanisms for transmitting cultural knowledge, laws, and gender expectations. Often, these rites included symbolic or physical transformations; such as circumcision, scarification, seclusion, or ritual mentorship, accompanied by lessons on sexual ethics, community loyalty, courage, and perseverance. Completion of the initiation was publicly celebrated, signifying the initiate’s acceptance of moral and social responsibility within the community (Teklemariam 2022; Mautle 2001; Matemba 2010).

In Eritrea, among the Blin ethnic group, the ritual known as ‘Shinglot’ continues to represent a structured moral education process. The initiate is blindfolded and bound, symbolically enduring hardship as a metaphor for adult responsibility in a semi-arid environment. While this process historically emphasized endurance and courage, modern interpretations now stress moral and communal readiness rather than physical pain (Teklemariam 2022). Similarly, in northern Ethiopia, traditional mentorship during initiation combines proverbs, storytelling, and labor-intensive apprenticeship; methods of moral education that cultivate patience, humility, and interdependence (Tekeste 1990; Woldegiyorgis 2016). These examples illustrate how initiation across the Greater Horn of Africa continues to serve as an essential medium for moral formation and character education, deeply rooted in indigenous wisdom and community life.

Across the Horn, however, many harmful physical practices, particularly female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C) have drawn strong criticism. In Somalia, approximately 99% of women aged 15–49 have undergone FGM, one of the highest rates globally (UNICEF 2024). Similar persistence is observed in Djibouti, where limited progress has been made toward eradication (African Union 2024). In Sudan, though legislation prohibits the practice, enforcement remains inconsistent, and community-level attitudes still view FGM as a symbol of purity and readiness for marriage (Bartelink 2017).

Kenya offers an encouraging model through Alternative Rites of Passage (ARP), particularly among Maasai and Samburu communities. These ARPs retain the cultural significance of transition to womanhood but replace cutting with workshops on sexual health, gender equality, and moral responsibility, culminating in communal ceremonies without harm (Le Monde 2024; AMREF Kenya 2023). In Ethiopia and Eritrea, similar generational changes are evident: younger women are significantly less likely than older generations to undergo FGM, suggesting the success of advocacy and education efforts (African Union 2024).

In Sudan and Somalia, community-based programs now incorporate health education and dialogue into initiation or puberty rites. Some village elders and imams use these forums to teach about respect, family responsibility, and hygiene while publicly discouraging cutting (Bartelink 2017). These approaches maintain moral education’s community-based essence while rejecting practices that endanger health or violate rights.

Initiation rites throughout the Greater Horn of Africa continue to function as systems of moral education, inculcating discipline, sexual responsibility, and communal identity. Historically, as in Djibouti, Sudan, Kenya, South Sudan, and Somalia, initiation practices were structured around gendered instruction and community ethics. Boys were trained in bravery, endurance, and defense of the community, while girls were instructed in domestic management, respect for elders, and social etiquette (Njogu and Orchardson-Mazrui 2013; Hussein 2020). Among Somali and Afar communities, for instance, initiation was closely tied to moral conduct, respect, and social responsibility, ensuring that individuals embodied virtues essential for social harmony and survival in pastoral and clan-based societies (S. M. Abshir et al. 2023b). Similarly, in parts of Sudan and South Sudan, traditional initiation emphasized social cohesion, moral restraint, and loyalty to the community, with mentorship by elders reinforcing principles of respect, courage, and honesty (Deng 2018).

Modern adaptations across the Horn have sought to retain the moral and educational essence of these traditions while eliminating harmful or exclusionary aspects. Many communities now reinterpret initiation as an inclusive, nonviolent moral formation process emphasizing gender equity, empathy, and shared responsibility (Matemba 2010; Waghid 2014). In Kenya’s pastoral and agro-pastoral societies, educators and local leaders have integrated cultural values into youth education programs, fostering moral responsibility and civic participation while moving away from practices that endanger health or reinforce gender inequality (Hussein 2020).

Recent field research supports the view that traditional initiation significantly influences moral behavior and social adjustment. Studies in Somalia and northern Kenya show that initiation continues to shape identity, ethical orientation, and social belonging, though challenges arise when such practices are not complemented by formal education and family guidance (J. Abshir et al. 2023a; Hussein 2020). This insight resonates throughout the Greater Horn of Africa, where the reform of initiation practices requires collaboration among educators, elders, and religious leaders to preserve the character-building intentions of these rites while ensuring they align with contemporary educational and human rights standards (Teklemariam 2022).

A Kenyan study by Benson (2025) revealed that traditional initiation often disrupts schooling, as youth miss classes or drop out for ritual obligations. Consequently, ARPs and mentorship programs have been restructured to align with school calendars and promote both moral and academic success. Similarly, Graamans et al. (2019) demonstrated that replacing harmful rites in Malawi with community-led alternatives not only reduced child marriage and FGM but also strengthened character formation by combining cultural pride with life skills and reproductive health education.

Strategies for Re-Aligning Traditional Initiation Rites for Character Development Today

Reforming initiation rites in the Greater Horn of Africa does not mean rejecting cultural heritage. Instead, it represents a moral evolution; preserving the philosophical foundations of African character education (communalism, preparationism, functionalism, and holisticism) while ensuring human dignity and safety (Adeyemi and Adeyinka 2003; Waghid 2014). Elders can continue to mentor youth in moral reasoning, social empathy, and respect for elders; women’s groups can teach family values and social harmony; and community ceremonies can celebrate maturity and responsibility.

As Graamans et al. (2019) and Benson (2025) affirm, the educational strength of initiation lies not in its physical trials but in its moral narrative. Pain-free rites that maintain communal participation and cultural pride can achieve the same ends; discipline, accountability, and respect without violating physical or psychological well-being.

In the modern context of the Greater Horn of Africa, therefore, initiation rites should continue as living traditions of character education, integrated with schools, health systems, and youth programs. The lesson remains that moral maturity derives from endurance of life’s challenges, but today, that endurance can be intellectual, emotional, and social rather than physical. A reimagined rite, rooted in local culture yet guided by universal principles of dignity and health can ensure that young men and women enter adulthood not through pain and fear but through reflection, wisdom, and communal celebration.

This transformation is strategically re-aligning traditional initiation rites with principles of healthy character development, community ethics, and human rights, ensuring the preservation of cultural meaning while discarding harmful practices. This successful reinterpretation of indigenous education for healthy character formation is driven by several synergistic strategies:

1. Community-Driven Ritual Reinterpretation and Reform: Elders, community leaders, and women’s groups are pivotal in reinterpreting traditional rituals. They actively preserve the rich symbolism of transition, responsibility, and community belonging while decisively eliminating physical harm. For instance, in parts of Kenya and Ethiopia, rites of passage now focus on elaborate public declarations of maturity, moral responsibility, and ethical commitments, replacing physical cutting with educational and celebratory ceremonies (UNICEF Kenya 2023). This process transforms initiation into a purely character-building experience.

2. Legal and Institutional Affirmation of Bodily Integrity: National legal frameworks provide the necessary institutional support to cement this shift. Legislation such as Kenya Prohibition of Female Genital Mutilation Act 2011 (Kenya Gazette 2011) and similar anti-FGM and child protection laws in Ethiopia and Sudan criminalize harmful practices. Crucially, these laws simultaneously legitimize and support culturally relevant education that upholds dignity, gender equality, and bodily integrity (UNICEF 2024), thereby reinforcing the ethical dimension of character education.

3. Integrated Health, Faith, and Dignity Education: A powerful alliance between religious and health sectors provides moral and factual backing for the reform. Religious leaders in nations like Eritrea, Djibouti, and Sudan reinterpret faith teachings to affirm human dignity and actively oppose all forms of mutilation. Concurrently, Health Ministries partner with non-governmental organizations to integrate medical facts, reproductive health education, and safety into revised initiation curricula (Bartelink 2017), linking character to physical and mental well-being.

4. Formal Education Partnerships for Civic and Moral Development: Schools and educational NGOs are incorporating the core content of traditional initiation such as community history, civic duty, and moral codes into formal civic and moral education. These partnerships emphasize peacebuilding, gender equality, and community ethics, ensuring that youth learn that adulthood is defined by responsibility, contribution, and ethical conduct, not by enduring suffering.

5. Active Youth-Led Advocacy and Participation: Youth are no longer passive recipients but active agents of change. They increasingly voice and champion a preference for symbolic, educational, and celebratory rites that effectively affirm their identity and belonging. By rejecting pain and coercion, young people are demanding and shaping character education that is meaningful, dignified, and aligned with modern human rights standards.

6. Palaver approach for a continuous dialogue about initiation Rites: The Palaver approach, as described by Bujo (2001) and Ilo and Mbonu (2023), offers a viable indigenous strategy for re-aligning traditional initiation rites toward constructive character education in the Greater Horn of Africa. Rooted in communal dialogue, moral reasoning, and consensus building, the Palaver model invites elders, women, and youth to deliberate together under a symbolic “tree of wisdom” to restore social harmony and re-affirm shared moral values (Scheid 2011). Within this participatory framework, traditional initiation can be revitalized as a living pedagogy of moral growth, social empathy, and community ethics rather than a test of physical endurance. Palaver dialogue allows communities to reflect critically on the moral purpose of rites; such as courage, patience, respect, and social accountability; while identifying elements that violate dignity or health.

This inclusive approach aligns with ongoing reform movements across the Horn of Africa, where initiation practices are being reimagined as community-centered moral education. Elders and local leaders in Eritrea, Kenya, and Sudan now convene through Palaver-inspired councils to reinterpret symbolic rituals, replacing physical trials with moral instruction, storytelling, and public pledges of maturity (Wane 2008; Mucherera 2009). These reformed dialogues restore the educational core of initiation; preparing youth for adult responsibility and service, while ensuring gender equity and nonviolence. Furthermore, Palaver discussions serve as intergenerational classrooms that integrate traditional wisdom with contemporary ethics, enabling communities to harmonize ancestral values with modern principles of human rights and health.

By institutionalizing Palaver forums alongside schools, churches, and civic organizations, communities can transform initiation into a platform for ethical education and peacebuilding. Religious and civic leaders use the Palaver process to link moral formation with broader goals of community development, justice, and reconciliation (Chikoko 2008; Waghid 2014). In this way, Palaver leadership becomes not merely a cultural relic but a dynamic method for moral renewal—bridging tradition and modernity. It ensures that initiation rites continue to function as powerful instruments of character formation, transmitting the virtues of empathy, discipline, and responsibility through reflective, dialogical, and humane processes.

7. Character Education Through Oral Literature

African traditional values are deeply embedded in oral literature; fables, myths, legends, and proverbs, which have long served as crucial tools for transmitting moral lessons and cultural wisdom across generations. These oral forms are not merely entertaining stories; they embody indigenous educational philosophies that foster moral growth, communal learning, and ethical reasoning. In the context of the Greater Horn of Africa, revisiting and revitalizing these traditions offers valuable insights for re-grounding character education in African moral heritage. Rather than replacing modern methods, these indigenous approaches could complement and enrich formal education by reconnecting learners to culturally meaningful ways of moral formation.

7.1. Fables

Fables in African societies have historically been powerful pedagogical instruments for teaching essential societal values such as wisdom, obedience, justice, and cleverness. Boateng (1983) illustrates how obedience to authority is symbolically conveyed through tales where characters must complete impossible tasks, such as creating a human being or fetching water in a basket. The moral resolution of these tales, often achieved through clever negotiation rather than defiance, encourages reflection on wisdom and humility. Told around evening fires, such stories blend entertainment with moral instruction, inviting listeners, especially children to infer ethical lessons through discussion.

A tale between hare and a lion is often told in Djibouti to children to show that intelligence and humility triumph over brute force and greed. Other fables reinforce values of cooperation, cleverness, respect for others, and community protection (DLIFLC n.d.). A South African fable recounted by Brill (1985) tells of a childless couple who entrust crows with their seeds, leading to the miraculous birth of eight children and a magical, ever-fruitful tree. The story underscores virtues of faith, generosity, and trust; values drawn out through communal reflection.

Across the Greater Horn of Africa, similar storytelling traditions have shaped social and moral understanding. Among the Somali, tales such as Dhegdheer (the cannibal woman) warn against disobedience and ingratitude, while Ethiopian and Eritrean fables featuring the fox, hyena, and monkey teach lessons about fairness, integrity, and the consequences of deceit. Elders and teachers often use such stories as frameworks for discussing moral choices and communal responsibility.

From a pedagogical perspective, reviving fables in classroom practice could offer experiential moral education, students can analyze characters’ actions, identify ethical dilemmas, and debate possible resolutions. This dialogical method aligns with contemporary models of character education that emphasize empathy, reflective judgment, and social responsibility.

7.2. Myths and Legends

African myths and legends express cultural philosophy, moral standards, and spiritual understanding of life and nature. They serve not only as entertainment but as educational tools that explain human origins, social order, and ethical behavior.

A myth from Ghana and Malawi, recounted by Mazzucco (2003), tells how Sa and Alatangana’s union gave rise to human diversity, different races, and languages illustrating unity within difference and the moral need for harmony. Death, introduced as divine justice, is framed as both loss and renewal, teaching acceptance and reverence for life’s cycles.

Myths from other regions (Miller 1978; Alan Tour n.d.) promote sharing, coexistence with animals, and respect for divine order, which are values central to African moral cosmology. In the Ethiopia, myths about heroic ancestors such as those in the Kebra Negest or the stories of Arawelo, the wise Somali queen, embody ideals of justice, courage, humility, and gender equity. Nubian legends that link humanity to the Nile emphasize respect for the environment and interdependence among all living beings.

Rather than treating these myths as relics of the past, educators could draw from them as pedagogical resources for moral dialogue. Used in classrooms, myths can prompt students to reflect on ethical principles, sustainability, and justice from an indigenous worldview. This approach aligns with transformative and intercultural character education, which encourages learners to internalize values through story-based reflection and community engagement.

7.3. Proverbs

Proverbs remain among the most concise and profound forms of African moral instruction. They encapsulate communal wisdom, offering ethical guidance in a few memorable words. Often attributed to ancestral authority, proverbs reinforce respect for elders, social harmony, and accountability (Boateng 1983).

Sayings like “When two elephants fight, it is the grass that gets hurt” teach empathy and warn against the collateral damage of conflict, while “He who digs a grave for his enemy digs one for himself” cautions against revenge. “The axe forgets, but the tree remembers” highlights the long-lasting impact of harm and the importance of mindfulness in human relationships.

In the Horn of Africa, proverbs continue to hold cultural and educational significance. The Tigrinya saying “What an old man can see sitting, a young man cannot see standing” promotes respect for elders and experiential wisdom. Somali proverbs like “Nin aan dhul marin dhaayo ma leh” (“He who has not traveled has no understanding”) encourage openness to learning, while Swahili maxims such as “Haba na haba hujaza kibaba” (“Little by little fills the measure”) stress perseverance. In Djibouti, proverbs teach that moral values hold meaning only in relation to others; as expressed in “A hero is seen by another hero”, and they emphasize that action and responsibility are more important than mere words, as reflected in the saying “A lot of talk does not fill the pot”.

Educationally, these proverbs could be used to stimulate moral reasoning, creative writing, and dialogue. Integrating indigenous proverbs into modern civic and moral education would not only strengthen cultural identity but also nurture reflection on ethical conduct, resilience, and social cohesion. They could serve as springboards for classroom discussions, peace education, and conflict resolution, particularly in societies recovering from division or conflict.

7.4. Indigenous Oral Literature for Revitalizing Indigenous Pedagogy for Modern Education

While modern education in the Greater Horn of Africa often privileges Western pedagogies, the intentional reintegration of oral literature could help align character education with indigenous values and cultural identity. Rather than viewing fables, myths, and proverbs as outdated relics, educators might instead treat them as complementary frameworks that root moral education in lived experience and community ethics (UNESCO 2003; Opondo 2014).

Emerging educational initiatives already hint at this direction. In Ethiopia, for example, peer-mentoring models drawn from traditional church-school contexts have been integrated into modern curricula, underscoring collaborative and culturally relevant pedagogy (Tadesse 2025). Early childhood care guidelines in Ethiopia also emphasizes is that children learn best when their culture, community, traditions, and environment serve as the vessel for transmitting knowledge (Early Childhood Education Ethiopia n.d.). In Kenya, research on oral narrative performance in the Schools and Colleges Drama Festivals shows how oral storytelling remains an educational tool for moral reasoning and national identity (Opondo 2014). Although direct published studies from Eritrea, Djibouti, Somalia, and Sudan are less numerous, regional work on non-formal education among pastoralist and nomadic groups points to indigenous knowledge and oral practices as life-skills education (Yitbarek et al. 2022; Ngugi 2024).

These examples suggest significant pedagogical potential, not as rigid, prescriptive practices, but as recommendations for culturally responsive character education. Oral traditions are inherently participatory and dialogical; they engage learners emotionally, morally, and intellectually (UNESCO 2003). By restoring these forms to the educational space, African educators can cultivate moral imagination, empathy, and a sense of belonging rooted in indigenous wisdom. Ultimately, fables, myths, and proverbs can serve as bridges between traditional moral systems and modern civic education, grounding character formation in the continent’s own intellectual and ethical heritage. Re-centering education on African values does not mean rejecting modernity, but rather adapting educational processes so that they respect and build upon the traditions that have sustained communities for generations.

8. The Home as the First School: The Custodian Role of Mothers

In the diverse societies of the Greater Horn of Africa, the mother was unequivocally recognized as the child’s first educator and moral guide. This foundational education, crucial for character formation, was considered so vital that it began not at birth, but often before. For instance, within Somali culture, through dietary practices, spiritual discipline, and the transmission of lullabies and traditional songs, the mother began instilling values, good morals, and practical skills, an educational role often shared with older siblings and extended relatives within a collectivist culture where interdependence is essential (S. M. Abshir et al. 2023b; Ikar 2018a).

The rationale for the mother’s foundational role in child education is deeply rooted in the indigenous understanding of early childhood and prenatal responsibility within Eritrean and Ethiopian societies (Bewket et al. 2023). Prenatal character instruction began in utero as a sacred commitment to ensuring the child’s moral, spiritual, and physical readiness for life. Traditional practices—often supervised by elderly women, midwives, or spiritual leaders-imposed taboos and offered guidance to expectant mothers regarding diet, behavior, and ritual observance. These included abstaining from harmful foods, using herbal remedies, and performing cleansing rituals involving holy water (tsebel) or symbolic cultural items to safeguard both mother and child. Among the Tigrigna and Amhara communities, for example, pregnancy was accompanied by blessings, prayers, and moral instruction, emphasizing that the unborn child’s well-being depended on the mother’s spiritual purity and emotional stability (Ibrahima 2021; Tesfai 2015). These pre-birth rites inherently underscored the profound belief that discipline, respect for traditions, and the interconnectedness of individual and communal well-being were mandatory from the earliest stages of existence, positioning the mother as the first guardian of this ethical contract (Thipanyane et al. 2022).

In many societies across the Greater Horn of Africa, particularly among Somali, Afar, Sudanese, and Northern Kenyan communities, the mother’s educational role intensified after childbirth. Mothers were regarded as the primary custodians of cultural and moral values, entrusted with transmitting essential life knowledge, ethical principles, and the mother tongue from infancy. Their pedagogy was deeply experiential and holistic, anchored in moral modeling, storytelling, proverbs, songs, and daily participation in household and communal activities. Through these methods, mothers instilled virtues such as honesty, generosity, respect for elders, and cooperation (Ikar 2018a or Ikar 2018b).

In Somali and Afar pastoral communities, mothers used folktales (sheekooyin) and riddles to teach endurance, humility, and social responsibility, while in Sudanese Nubian and Dinka communities, mothers emphasized communal solidarity and respect through oral narratives and early moral correction (Deng 2018). Beyond nurturing, women were also central contributors to communal survival, working alongside men in herding, cultivation, and food preservation, demonstrating that education and labor were inseparable moral duties (Hussein 2020).

A Somali proverb captures this worldview: Hooyo waa iskuul (“A mother is a school”), affirming that moral and cultural learning begins in the maternal domain. Within this intimate and stable setting, children acquired language, domestic and pastoral skills, and a sense of moral duty and collective belonging (Ikar 2018b; Ikar 2018a).

Despite the crucial emphasis on the mother’s foundational role in the early character education of the child, indigenous pedagogy in the Greater Horn of Africa explicitly recognized that character formation is a shared responsibility. The entire extended family played an integral and complementary part. The father, for instance, was essential for teaching specialized vocational skills, ethical leadership, and clan history, often modeling bravery and responsibility, particularly as the child grew older (Ogunyemi and Owolabi 2023). Grandparents served as vital repositories of wisdom, tradition, and moral codes, using storytelling to transmit historical and cultural values necessary for communal identity (Abidde 2013). Furthermore, siblings provided the first lessons in cooperation, conflict resolution, and hierarchical respect. This familial network seamlessly merged with the extended community, reinforcing the principle of collective moral accountability, where any adult acted in loco parentis to instruct and correct. This multi-layered scaffolding ensured that the child’s character was robustly shaped by diverse perspectives and consistent ethical modeling, preparing them for full participation in society.

The Community as the Broader Educational Field

The education begun at the hearth was seamlessly transitioned into the communal realm. In traditional Horn societies, education was viewed as a holistic and lifelong process with no strict age-based or institutional demarcation, making the community the logical expanded “field” of learning once a child was beyond infancy.

This broader field focused on Holistic and Specialized Learning. Children expanded their knowledge to encompass more specialized skills and communal lore according to their age, gender, and destiny, including Tribal or Clan Laws and Governance, Ceremonial Practices and Rituals, Practical Skills (e.g., camel herding, cattle rearing, subsistence farming, craft production), and the mastering of Complex Social Relations and Diplomacy. The core objective was not to produce a specialist but a well-rounded, proficient individual (Achi 2021a; Ogunlola 2020). Within this framework, Character and moral development were paramount, emphasizing values (such as honesty, diligence, and cooperation) necessary for individuals to contribute positively to the collective good (Ogunlola 2020; Achi 2021b).

This system was reinforced by a Collective Moral Accountability. Moral education was deemed a collective responsibility: while parents were the expected primary moral role models, any adult member of the community had the inherent right and duty to instruct or correct a child. The misbehavior of a child was thus often interpreted as a reflection not only on the child but on the parent’s failure to fulfill their communal duties. This rigorous communal accountability system powerfully reinforced shared values and expectations, ensuring children matured into responsible, ethical, and fully integrated adult members. Finally, Rites of Passage as Ethical Reinforcement provided specific, potent moments of instruction, currently undergoing ethical reinterpretation in the Greater Horn Africa, that publicly reinforced the core values learned at home and in the community, marking the transition to full adult responsibility and ensuring the individual was a capable and morally upright member of society.

This comprehensive, community-centered model underscores that the integrity of the individual was inseparable from the well-being of the collective, positioning character education as the most critical function of indigenous pedagogy in the Greater Horn of Africa.

9. Decolonizing the Mind: The Journey of Rediscovering Indigenous Roots

The history of education in Africa, particularly in the Greater Horn region is inseparable from the continent’s encounters with foreign powers and ideologies. Before external interventions, African education was inherently communal, holistic, and deeply moral. It sought to produce not only skilled individuals but also morally upright citizens grounded in collective well-being and spiritual awareness. In this region, as elsewhere on the continent, indigenous education was transmitted through oral traditions, storytelling, initiation rites, and apprenticeship, forming a foundation of character education rooted in community life (Adeyemi and Adeyinka 2003; Fafunwa 1974; Ocitti 1994).

However, the introduction of Arab education in the 11th century and European missionary education in the 19th century fundamentally altered these indigenous systems. Both Arab and European models were formalized, hierarchical, and religiously motivated, driven by the spread of Islam and Christianity, respectively. These systems contrasted sharply with indigenous African approaches that valued experience, moral instruction, and social responsibility.

The introduction of these foreign systems brought profound cultural dislocation. Arab and European education delegitimized traditional African wisdom, dismissing it as primitive or pagan. As formal schools expanded, indigenous learning spaces shrank. The moral instruction once embedded in community narratives, proverbs, and rituals was replaced by religious doctrines that elevated foreign moralities while marginalizing local ethics. This process eroded indigenous values such as communal responsibility, respect for elders, and the sacred interdependence between humans and nature. Moreover, local languages; the core medium of cultural transmission were replaced by Arabic, English, French, or Portuguese, alienating learners from their cultural roots and fostering dependency on foreign norms (Nsamenang 2006; Ali 2022).

Colonial and missionary education did not merely change what Africans learned; it reshaped how they thought about themselves. By privileging European and Arab epistemologies, it fostered internalized inferiority, teaching African learners to view their own traditions as inferior or irrelevant. This “colonization of the mind,” as Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o (1986) described, became one of colonialism’s most insidious legacies. The result was an education system that produced clerks and catechists for colonial administrations but disconnected generations from their heritage and moral grounding.

It is therefore both logical and necessary to rediscover indigenous educational values and traditions, particularly within the Greater Horn of Africa. The colonial system left a lasting impact that continues to shape generations, making it essential to decolonize the colonized mind as a means of reclaiming and revitalizing indigenous moral and character education.

Decolonizing education is thus a transformative and restorative process. It involves dismantling epistemic hierarchies that position Western knowledge as universal and reasserting the legitimacy of indigenous African epistemologies, values, and languages. Abdi (2021) contends that decolonization is not limited to curriculum reform; it challenges the psychological and cultural subjugation embedded in educational institutions. To decolonize education is to confront mental colonization and reestablish learning as a moral and cultural enterprise that shapes identity, virtue, and social harmony.

In the African context, and especially in the Greater Horn, this process means returning to foundational values such as Ubuntu (or its local equivalents), the philosophy that “a person is a person through other people.” Education, from this perspective, is not merely intellectual but moral and communal. It nurtures social responsibility and empathy, ensuring that knowledge contributes to justice and collective well-being. Decolonizing education, therefore, restores education’s moral purpose and repositions African learners as cultural agents rather than passive consumers of foreign knowledge.

Abdi (2020) argues that true decolonization must challenge the colonization of systems of knowledge and knowing. In practice, this means reimagining curricula that integrate indigenous forms of moral and character education, such as storytelling, proverbs, initiation rituals, and mentorship; alongside modern disciplines. These elements root learning in the cultural and ethical realities of African societies while still engaging with global perspectives. A decolonial curriculum is not anti-Western; it is pluralistic, acknowledging that knowledge is not neutral but always situated within cultural and historical contexts.

From a practical standpoint, decolonizing education calls for the inclusion of indigenous pedagogical strategies that foster collective reflection and experiential learning. For instance, moral instruction might draw on oral traditions, while science education can integrate indigenous ecological knowledge. Such integration bridges the gap between traditional and modern learning, cultivating both cultural pride and global competence.

Despite political independence, African education systems, including those in the Greater Horn remain largely colonial in structure and philosophy. Shizha (2020) notes that postcolonial curricula continue to reflect Eurocentric paradigms, reproducing colonial hierarchies of knowledge. The dominance of Western epistemologies perpetuates the marginalization of indigenous perspectives, rendering learners “strangers” within their own educational systems. Shizha calls for curricular transformation that centers African epistemologies, ensuring that education speaks to the realities, values, and aspirations of local communities.

Similarly, Higgs (2016) examines the persistence of Western paradigms in South African higher education, arguing for a “fusion of epistemologies” that reconfigures the foundations of knowledge production. For Higgs, decolonization is an epistemic dialogue, a space where indigenous and global knowledges coexist, critique, and enrich each other. This integrative approach prevents parochialism while affirming the epistemic dignity of African ways of knowing.

Lavia and Mahlomaholo (2019) extend this view by situating decolonizing education within the moral and imaginative dimensions of human existence. They argue that education should cultivate belonging, dignity, and critical reflection rather than serve as an instrument of conformity. Schools, therefore, become spaces of cultural renewal and ethical formation; where learning affirms identity and humanity. This perspective repositions education as an act of healing and reconstruction after centuries of cultural dislocation.

Postcolonial theory provides the intellectual foundation for understanding decolonization in education. It interrogates how colonialism reshaped cultures, identities, and knowledge systems, producing enduring structures of inequality (B. Abidogun 2022); Ndlovu-Gatsheni 2020). Central to postcolonial critique is the recognition that colonialism was not only a political and economic project but also a cultural one (coloniality), which sought to dominate consciousness and redefine reality through language, religion, and education (Ndimande 2018; Zembylas 2022).

Frantz Fanon’s analysis offers deep insight into the psychological dimensions of colonialism. In his publication ‘Black Skin, White Mask’ (Fanon 1952) and The Wretched of the Earth (Fanon 1961) reveals how colonized people internalize the colonizer’s worldview, leading to alienation and self-denial. Liberation, for Fanon, requires both political emancipation and psychological decolonization—a radical reassertion of identity and humanity. Education, in this sense, must become a site of self-recovery, where learners unlearn inferiority and reclaim agency.

Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o (1986) complements Fanon’s vision by emphasizing the centrality of language in decolonization. In Decolonizing the Mind, he argues that language carries culture and worldview; when African children are educated in colonial languages, they are alienated from their cultural consciousness. To reclaim indigenous languages is to restore the African imagination and revive cultural continuity. For Ngũgĩ, writing, teaching, and thinking in African languages are acts of resistance and liberation. Thus, linguistic decolonization is both a symbolic and practical step toward restoring intellectual sovereignty.

Indigenous epistemology offers a philosophical and pedagogical foundation for decolonial education. Rooted in lived experiences, spirituality, and communal relationships, indigenous ways of knowing perceive knowledge as holistic, relational, and morally grounded (Battiste 2002). Knowledge is a shared heritage connecting generations through storytelling, songs, rituals, and ecological stewardship, principles that are especially visible in the Greater Horn of Africa’s pastoral and agrarian cultures. Learning is lifelong, contextual, and accountable to the community.

This epistemology aligns closely with Freire (1970) concept of critical pedagogy, which views education as a practice of freedom rather than domination. Freire calls for learners to become co-creators of knowledge through reflection and action (praxis), challenging oppression and transforming their social conditions. When integrated with indigenous epistemology, critical pedagogy fosters culturally grounded and socially transformative education, moving beyond rote memorization to critical engagement with real-life experiences.

In East Africa, traditional education was holistic and lifelong, encompassing moral, social, and practical dimensions. It aimed to produce individuals who were not only knowledgeable but virtuous and socially responsible. As Sifuna (1990) explains, indigenous education emphasized communal values, social cohesion, and cultural continuity. Children learned moral lessons through proverbs and folktales, initiation rites, and intergenerational mentorship, all central to moral and character formation. Mothers played a crucial role as the first educators, using songs, riddles, and stories to cultivate honesty, cooperation, and empathy (Fafunwa 1974). Education thus began in the home and radiated outward to the clan and community. The disruption of these systems through colonial education created moral and cultural dissonance. Yet rediscovering and integrating indigenous pedagogies into modern curricula can re-anchor education in moral purpose. By reconnecting schools to community values, the Greater Horn of Africa can cultivate citizens who are both globally competent and culturally grounded.

In conclusion, decolonizing the mind is not merely an intellectual exercise; it is a moral and cultural imperative. The journey of rediscovering indigenous roots requires confronting the lingering effects of colonialism on African consciousness, language, and education. It calls for an epistemic reawakening that restores dignity to local knowledge and redefines education as a tool for liberation rather than subjugation.

This process, informed by scholars such as Fanon, Ngũgĩ, Abdi, Shizha, Higgs, Lavia, and Mahlomaholo, envisions an education system that is both rooted and dynamic, anchored in indigenous moral traditions yet open to global dialogue. Reclaiming African educational philosophies, especially the moral and character formation embedded in communal life, offers a pathway to cultural renewal and social justice. Education, once used to colonize, can become the most powerful means of decolonizing the mind, restoring the wisdom, dignity, and humanity that colonization sought to erase.

10. Addressing Historiographical Limitations in Pre-Colonial African Education

Studying African indigenous character education in pre-colonial Africa faces significant historiographical challenges that limit our understanding and interpretation. First, there is a reliance on oral traditions, such as storytelling, proverbs, and songs, as primary sources of historical knowledge. While rich in moral and cultural content, oral sources are inherently mutable and context-dependent, making it difficult for historians to verify details or construct linear narratives (Sifuna 1990). Despite this, evidence of their effectiveness is clear: oral methods instilled communal values, discipline, and moral integrity across generations, producing individuals who were socially responsible and culturally grounded.

Second, colonial and Eurocentric biases have historically influenced the recording and interpretation of African education. Early colonial writers often dismissed indigenous education as primitive or informal, focusing instead on European-style formal education. This created an incomplete and skewed historical record, marginalizing the significance of indigenous practices in character formation (Fafunwa 1974). Scholars have minimized these biases by critically reviewing colonial archives, combining oral histories with archaeological and ethnographic evidence, and privileging indigenous perspectives, thereby reconstructing a more accurate picture of pre-colonial education systems.

Third, there is the challenge of translating and contextualizing indigenous knowledge systems. Pre-colonial education emphasized relational, communal, and moral dimensions, often embedded in language, rituals, and local practices. Modern historiographical methods, which prioritize written and individualistic frameworks, may misrepresent or oversimplify these practices (Adeyemi and Adeyinka 2003). Researchers have addressed this limitation by employing participatory methods, engaging elders and community members, and analyzing cultural expressions within their social and ethical contexts.

By combining oral, ethnographic, and written sources while critically reflecting on historical biases, scholars demonstrate that African traditional character education effectively cultivated moral integrity, social cohesion, and practical competence, providing a foundation for contemporary educational insights.

11. Concluding Summary

This integrative review successfully demonstrated that sophisticated, character-centric educational systems were fully operational in pre-colonial African societies, particularly across the Greater Horn of Africa. This indigenous pedagogy was fundamentally holistic, informal, and communitarian, rooted in philosophical principles like functionalism, perennialism, and communalism. The core function was the assimilation of moral integrity and social responsibility into every aspect of life, ensuring the collective welfare and cultural continuity across generations. Character was effectively transmitted through the collective responsibility of the community, the rich pedagogy of oral literature (fables, proverbs), and the structured moral instruction embedded in initiation rites. While the paper acknowledges the persistence of harmful traditional practices, notably FGM/C in parts of Somalia, Djibouti, and Sudan, it highlights promising ethical reinterpretation strategies, such as Kenya’s Alternative Rites of Passage (ARP) and supportive institutional affirmation, proving that cultural evolution is viable.

The study concludes that these time-tested indigenous models offer valuable, culturally resonant solutions for contemporary moral and civic education. The pervasive influence of foreign systems; Arab Islamic education from the 11th century and European colonial/Christian values from the 1800s (Ali 2022; Njeroge and Bennaars 1990) has introduced virtues, but also problematic values like individualism, materialism, and secularism, which often fail to align with the relational needs of African societies. As the Tigre (Eritrea) proverb wisely advises, “Betka minme -etexegbeka, tehafneka” (“Your own house, even if it does not satisfy you, keeps you warm”), emphasizing the inherent value of native inheritance. Therefore, the imperative for the Greater Horn of Africa is to decolonize the mind; a critical call to pause, reflect, and undertake a process of conscious synthesis, retaining the functional indigenous wisdom while acknowledging and mitigating its inherent limitations, such as conservatism and historically harsh instructional methods.

Concluding Remarks and Further Research Suggestions

This critical assessment of indigenous character education solidifies the fact that Africans should decide for themselves what character to instill in their children by judiciously integrating their traditional values with existing Western and Quranic systems. This process requires prioritizing the moral narrative over institutional form and fostering a sense of pride in one’s heritage. The complexity of the Greater Horn of Africa necessitates further, targeted research in three critical areas:

• Context-Specific Case Studies: Given the vast ecological and cultural diversity of the Greater Horn of Africa, future research should move beyond regional generalizations. Detailed ethnographic studies focusing on specific ethnic groups or countries (e.g., the Afar people’s oral traditions in Ethiopia, the Dinka’s initiation structures in South Sudan) are necessary to uncover the granular, context-dependent mechanisms of value transmission.
• Implementation and Integration Strategies: A second vital area involves developing and testing practical strategies for discovering and integrating indigenous values into the formal schooling system. Research should focus on creating culturally appropriate curricula that synthesize indigenous concepts (like Communalism) with modern pedagogical methods to strengthen civic and moral instruction.
• Longitudinal Outcomes of Reform: A comparative or longitudinal study is required to assess the long-term psychosocial and academic outcomes for youth who participate in Alternative Rites of Passage (ARP) versus those who undergo unreformed traditional rites or no rites at all. Such research would provide empirical evidence supporting the efficacy of ethical cultural reform.

Disclaimer: I acknowledge that discussing education in precolonial Africa, and specifically in the Greater Horn of Africa, risks overgeneralization. This region is home to numerous ethnic groups and traditions, each with unique educational practices and cultural norms. The intention of this article is not to ignore such diversity but to highlight patterns and practices that appear widely shared or commonly accepted across the region. The claims made are supported by available literature and are meant to provide a coherent understanding of indigenous education while recognizing the inherent complexity and local variations within the Greater Horn of Africa.