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16 March 2017

Towards an Ultimate Battery Thermal Management System: A Review

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Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University, Pontoppidanstræde 101, Aalborg DK-9220, Denmark
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Batteries2017, 3(1), 9;https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries3010009
This article belongs to the Special Issue Lithium Ion Batteries
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Abstract

The prevailing standards and scientific literature offer a wide range of options for the construction of a battery thermal management system (BTMS). The design of an innovative yet well-functioning BTMS requires strict supervision, quality audit and continuous improvement of the whole process. It must address all the current quality and safety (Q&S) standards. In this review article, an effective battery thermal management is sought considering the existing battery Q&S standards and scientific literature. The article contains a broad overview of the current existing standards and literature on a generic compliant BTMS. The aim is to assist in the design of a novel compatible BTMS. Additionally, the article delivers a set of recommendations to make an effective BTMS.

1. Introduction

The main barriers to the deployment of large fleets of vehicles on public roads equipped with lithium-ion batteries continue to be safety, costs related to cycle and calendar life, and performance. These challenges are coupled with thermal effects in the battery, including capacity/power fade, thermal runaway, electrical imbalance among multiple cells in a battery pack, and low-temperature performance [1,2]. Ideally, most batteries are expected to operate at an optimum average temperature with a very narrow differential range [3,4]. While designing a battery cell, pack, or system, the rate of heat dissipation must be fast enough so that the battery never reaches the thermal runaway temperature. The event of reaching the thermal runaway temperature triggers the commencement of the irreversible decomposition of battery composition, i.e., electrolyte and electrodes are damaged. Generally, those decomposition reactions are exothermic (heat producing). It implies that the temperature increases more and more once the thermal runaway temperature is reached. It irreversibly triggers a chain reaction of self-heating and ultimately the destruction of the cell [5].
Temperature excursions and non-uniformity of the temperature of the battery cell are the main concerns and drawbacks for different applications. The thermodynamics of lithium-ion cells are complicated by the presence of liquid electrolyte mixtures as well as single-phase and multiphase solids. Heat generation may result from mixing and phase change, as well as the main electrochemical reactions [6,7,8,9,10,11]. Reliable prediction of temperature profiles of individual cells, and of a battery system, requires first of all accurate measurement level of the total heat-generation rate. Thus, measurements of temperature rise and the heat dissipation or absorption of battery cells are essential.
In general, temperature affects several aspects of a battery including the operation of the electrochemical system, round-trip efficiency, charge acceptance, power and energy capability, reliability, life and lifecycle cost. Although the capacity increases as the operating temperature is raised, the degree of capacity fade also increases. On the other hand, poor performance is observed at low operating temperature [12,13]. In addition, excessive or uneven temperature rise in a system or pack reduces its lifecycle significantly [14]. The high temperature during charge and discharge will lead to the possibility that temperatures will exceed permissible levels, consequently decreasing the battery performance. Furthermore, the uneven temperature distribution in the battery pack will lead to a localized deterioration. Therefore, temperature uniformity, within a cell and from cell to cell, is important for achieving maximum lifecycle of cells, packs, and battery systems.
The employed heating and cooling method could create an uneven temperature distribution inside the battery pack, depending on the location of each stack or system, and external ambient conditions [15,16,17,18,19]. This uneven temperature in the cells could trigger an uneven temperature distribution in the pack. Thus, the pack could lead to an unbalanced system. It restricts the optimum performance. Additionally, the lifetime of the battery pack is reduced. Accordingly, it reduces the operational lifetime of the application of the pack that it is designed for, e.g., electrical vehicles (EV). Depending on the electrochemistry and working temperature, each kind of cell works better or worse depending on its specific circumstances and working temperature. Therefore, in order to keep the temperature within the pack’s narrow range level, a battery thermal management system (BTMS) plays a vital role [20,21].
Heat is generated and released from the cell during both charge and discharge. If the heat generated in the cell/pack is not removed efficiently, then it is stored, raising the temperature of the cell/pack and the total battery system [22]. The magnitude of the overall heat-generation rate from a battery pack under load dictates the size and design of the cooling system [23]. Different kinds of Li-ion batteries have different characteristic values; for instance, battery heat flux measurement represents the heat generated inside the cell. A thermal management strategy requires that these data be measured accurately [24,25] to design a proper BTMS.
Figure 1 presents a generic battery thermal management system (BTMS).
Figure 1. Battery thermal management system (BTMS).
This article aims to define the physical design, construction and material requirements of BTMS for anticipated application. Those are required to qualify properly a BTMS inside a battery system irrespective of chemistries for the particular applications [26]. The usages of standardized procedures from reputable organizations allow this article to present a fair and impartial comparison of thermal management for battery pack design. It is intended to improve safety and performance. This article is written to provide a common framework of BTMS manufacture and design to evaluate the options of different BTMSs applicable for various operating conditions. Nevertheless, those that operate near the ambient temperatures can also benefit from the existence of BTMS [27,28]. It must be noted that there exists several available studies reviewing these models [29,30,31,32,33,34]. Since modelling is out of the scope of the article, the details are deliberately avoided. Figure 2 in the following represents the generic schematics of BTMS modelling.
Figure 2. Electrical and thermal model coupling [35].
The structure of the article is arranged as follows. Section 2 gives a general overview concerning the expected characteristics and requirements of a generic BTMS originating from current standards as well as the generic thermal requirements of a battery system. Section 3 analyses specifically quality and safety standards. Section 4 provides the accessory level composition and required interfaces. Section 5 provides some recommendations and suggestions stemming from different standards and research studies. Section 6 provides the conclusion of the article.

2. Expected Characteristics and Requirements of a Battery Thermal Management System (BTMS)

The BTMS is an important and integral part of a battery management system (BMS) [36,37,38]. BTMS is comprised of a combination of hardware and software. It is used fundamentally to preserve the temperature of battery cells in a pack at an optimal range [39,40,41,42,43]. It helps to enhance the lifetime while ensuring safe and secure operation of the battery pack [44,45,46,47]. It is therefore inevitable that BTMS is typically associated with the process of retaining the operational temperature at an optimal level through keeping the temperature gradient within a relatively narrow range [48]. The BTMS must be designed to suit automotive criteria, which include [49,50]: being lightweight, easily packaged in the desired application—for example, EVs—and they must be compact, reliable, cost-effective, easy to assembly and placed in an appropriate position [51,52,53].
Depending on the operating and ambient conditions, the employed method inside BTMS can either be employed for cooling, heating or insulating. A traditional BTMS includes air as the medium, and an electric blower or fan to mobilize it. On the other hand, liquid BTMSs include water, glycol, oil, acetone, refrigerants, and Phase Change Material (PCM) thermal management systems. In order to ensure uniform and adequate cooling, the BTMS is composed of controller and associated controller algorithm adjusting for different cells’ temperatures and operation statuses.
Depending on electrochemical-physical characteristics and corresponding reactions, the optimum operating range of different batteries will differ. The optimum range for most general batteries requires operating near room temperature (15–35 °C) [54,55]. By keeping the temperature within a narrow optimum level, it helps to lengthen the battery pack lifetime. Since the performance of a battery pack depends on the performance of individual cells, the cooling scheme should be activated when the battery is exposed to the high rate of charge and discharge [56]. Moreover, depending on altitude and geographical condition, the operation of BTMS varies.
Thermal insulation is needed in case of reducing the heat loss from high temperature either during the desired application’s operation and stand-by. Battery pack thermal management and control could be achieved by air or liquid systems [57,58,59], active or passive approaches. Increasing the insulation thickness was suggested for slowing the rate of temperature increase while parking in the summertime, although this also appears to be similarly beneficial for winter operations [60,61]. Figure 3 illustrates a generic BTMS structure [62,63].
Figure 3. A generic view of the composition of BTMSs [37].
A generic BTMS is made up of cooling, heating and insulation components. The intensity, direction of cooling and heating will depend on the application requirement to maintain the temperature at a uniform range. A provision must be made for ventilation if the battery generates potentially hazardous gasses [64]. In order to extend low-temperature operability where it may be of concern, a heating system may be equipped as a part of a BTMS. The battery must be heated rapidly after a cold start-up. Another way to deliver the heat may be through heating the battery coolant by means of heat exchangers with the engine coolant. There would be a delay in the initiation of heating as the engine gradually warms up. Therefore, electric heating is responsible for raising battery temperature from cool ambient temperature to the desired temperature before the system start-up. Upon start-up, the BTMS should be able to verify that all sensors and actuators, such as contactors, fans, and pumps, are responding correctly. Also, individual modules that determine the state of charge [65], state of health, wiring corrosion, sensor or contactor failures are performing appropriately [20]. In the periphery of thermal management systems, it is important to be aware that there should be no hazard caused by ignition sources, leakage currents, electrolyte flooding, etc. Figure 4 and Table 1 present a generic comparison among the air, liquid and refrigerant cooling systems.
Figure 4. (a) Air cooling; (b) liquid and (c) refrigerant cooling [65].
Table 1. Comparison between different cooling schemes in traditional BTMSs [66]. HEV: Hybrid electric vehicle; and PHEV: Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles.
The following Table 2 corresponds different aspects of a generic BTMS.
Table 2. Different aspects of a battery thermal system.

3. Quality and Safety Standards

To ensure that the battery thermal management’s quality is consistent over its whole lifetime, some quality aspects need to be monitored [73]. Thus, broadly speaking, the target is not only to achieve the best performance but also to retain a certain quality standard spanning from the beginning of life (BoL) to end of life (EoL) of the battery application [37,68,69,70,74,75].
Table 3 contains important existing standards regarding BTMS.
Table 3. Existing standards regarding BTMS.

3.1. Quality

The interested stakeholders need to prepare and implement a quality plan that outlines the audit practices. They should ensure periodical inspection of the system that contains cell materials, components and covers the whole process of producing a battery system that includes BTMS. The stakeholder should identify and must have a knowledge of the process capabilities as well as include and adapt the necessary process controls regarding the corresponding battery pack safety and quality [77].

3.2. General Quality Test Features and Rules

BTMS manufacturer needs to supply the relevant technical documentation. The battery units shall function per the recommended practice. In the case of occurrence of the significant change in a definite design feature, material and/or process relevant quality inspection should be arranged [84] to ensure that the altered BTMS system complies with the existing safety, performance and/or durability requirements for the specified application. Moreover, each configuration and its performance shall be documented with photographs (if necessary) [85]. The shape, size and construction details and the maximum temperature reached of the inter-cell connectors during the corresponding test shall be reported [85]. In mission-critical installations (uninterruptible power supply (UPS) battery service) the knowledge of the temperature reached under actual discharge conditions is essential to determine whether potential hazards exist [81,86,87].

3.3. Safety

Safety is of prime importance for using BTMSs. Safety concerns include safeguarding against fire, explosion, and the corrosive nature of the electrolyte, as well as the venting of toxic or flammable gases [48,85,88,89,90,91,92,93,94,95,96,97,98]. All auxiliary equipment such as thermal sensors, thermostats, heaters and switching devices must be designed so that they cannot be the source of an explosion. The current-carrying components of the battery units should be dimensioned and constructed appropriately to provide safety against external short-circuit conditions. Cells and battery systems are to be designed and constructed robustly by ensuring they are safe under conditions of both intended use and reasonably foreseeable misuse [26,99]. In unlikely and unfortunate conditions, an internal short-circuit occurs, and thermal runaway can thus occur more easily, e.g., when the battery is charged under incorrect conditions [24,86,100,101,102,103,104,105,106,107,108,109,110,111]. Consequently, the lithium-ion secondary battery should never be charged at a higher voltage than this recommended upper limit charging voltage [77]. In some secondary cells, a different recommended temperature range other than 10–45 °C is applied due to the difference in thermal stability of the electrolyte and other thermal and electrical factors [109,112,113,114].

3.4. Protection Schemes

A number of protection schemes are needed to be employed for smooth and safe operation of the battery systems with a BTMS.
Table 4 contains a protection list for BTMSs.
Table 4. BTMS protection schemes.

4. State-of-the-Art Tools for Battery Thermal Management

Thermal imaging and calorimetric techniques with the help of the state-of-the-art measuring equipment are required. Integrated implementation is required to provide valuable information about cell and component thermal-related properties, behavior, and characteristics [116].

4.1. Thermal Imaging

Table 5 presents different possible tools that can be used by imaging for measuring battery performance.
Table 5. Tools used for imaging battery thermal performance.

4.2. Calorimetric Methods

Calorimetry is used for heat-generation measurements [39,41,118,119,120,121,122]. At constant temperature conditions, isothermal calorimetry measures thermal power, i.e., heat-production rate. Table 6 contains the comparison between adiabatic and isothermal calorimeters.
Table 6. Comparison between adiabatic and isothermal calorimeters [123].

5. Recommendations and Suggestions

The noteworthy factors that can be very important for building a battery system with a BTMS is as follows: electrolyte resistance [91,124,125,126,127,128,129,130,131,132,133,134], electrolyte level [135,136,137,138], leakage [139], dissimilar metals, corrosion prevention [26,140], battery containers and components, as well as battery containers and covers [26]. Under no circumstances should a cell or battery short-circuit. For instance, the storage or casing should be thoroughly inspected for cells lying haphazardly that may incite short-circuiting either by themselves or with the help of conductive materials [77]. The cells or batteries must not be exposed to heat or fire; even averting storage in direct sunlight should become a common practice [77].
Several recommendations and suggestions are outlines in Table 7.
Table 7. Suggestions and Recommendations for an Effective BTMS.

6. Conclusions

In this article, a concise overview of the battery system is presented using both current literature studies and different well-established quality and safety standards. The basic focus is on enhancing the thermal-related performance of a battery system. Furthermore, some suggestions and recommendations are explicated in terms of the standards for improving the performance of state-of-the-art battery systems. The most important design parameters are design cost options and desired level of sophistication. The presented attributes can certainly enhance state-of-the-art battery thermal management systems (BTMS). The recommendations are made to extend BTMS lifetime, and to maintain reliability and efficiency. In order to ensure the quality of the compliant BTMS derived from the standards, a high level of inspection is also required.

Acknowledgments

The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support for this work from the Danish Strategic Research Council to the Advanced Lifetime Predictions of Battery Energy Storage (ALPBES) project.

Author Contributions

Mohammad Rezwan Khan performed analysis on all the review papers and articles, interpreted their raw data, wrote the manuscript and acted as the corresponding author. Other contributions include special conceptualization of the entire review work, as well as its realization and documentation. Maciej Jozef Swierczynski contributed to manuscript evaluation. Søren Knudsen Kær supervised the development of the work. Additionally, he helped to evaluate and edit the manuscript.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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