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Volume 11
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10.3390/batteries11120458
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This is an early access version, the complete PDF, HTML, and XML versions will be available soon.
Article

Li-Ion Battery Recycling via High-Intensity Milling Followed by Organic Acid Leaching for Preferential Lithium Extraction

by
Brenda Segura-Bailón
1,*,
Léa Rouquette
1,
Nathália Vieceli
2,
Karolina Bogusz
1,
Cécile Moreau
1 and
Martina Petranikova
1
1
Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Industrial Materials Recycling and Nuclear Chemistry, Chalmers University of Technology, Kemivägen 4, 41 296 Gothenburg, Sweden
2
Northvolt Revolt AB, Nätverksgränd 5, 721 36 Västerås, Sweden
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Batteries 2025, 11(12), 458; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11120458
Submission received: 3 November 2025 / Revised: 24 November 2025 / Accepted: 9 December 2025 / Published: 12 December 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Papers from Circular Materials Conference 2025)
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Abstract

Nowadays, spent batteries are considered a secondary and potential resource to meet the growing demand for lithium, a critical element widely used in the manufacturing of electric vehicles. Therefore, this work presents a hydrometallurgical method for extracting lithium from Nickel–Manganese–Cobalt (NMC) batteries. Citric (C6H8O7) and oxalic (C2H2O4) acids were used as leaching agents, both of which are cataloged as environmentally friendly organic compounds. To comprehend the chemical interactions between citrate (cit), oxalate (ox) and metallic ions, a thermodynamic analysis is presented. According to this analysis, both ions were effective in dissolving lithium; however, the experimental studies demonstrated that oxalate ensured a selective process and achieved complete lithium dissolution under the experimental conditions 1 M C2H2O4, 50 g/L, 60 °C, and 60 min, with a mechanically treated sample (milling time 8 min at 1000 rpm). In this process, the other metals present in the sample, such as cobalt, nickel, and manganese, formed insoluble species with oxalate, allowing their recovery in subsequent stages. Therefore, this investigation provides a proficient methodology for battery recycling, emphasizing sustainable practices.
Keywords: battery recycling; lithium extraction; eco-friendly leaching; circular materials battery recycling; lithium extraction; eco-friendly leaching; circular materials
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MDPI and ACS Style

Segura-Bailón, B.; Rouquette, L.; Vieceli, N.; Bogusz, K.; Moreau, C.; Petranikova, M. Li-Ion Battery Recycling via High-Intensity Milling Followed by Organic Acid Leaching for Preferential Lithium Extraction. Batteries 2025, 11, 458. https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11120458

AMA Style

Segura-Bailón B, Rouquette L, Vieceli N, Bogusz K, Moreau C, Petranikova M. Li-Ion Battery Recycling via High-Intensity Milling Followed by Organic Acid Leaching for Preferential Lithium Extraction. Batteries. 2025; 11(12):458. https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11120458

Chicago/Turabian Style

Segura-Bailón, Brenda, Léa Rouquette, Nathália Vieceli, Karolina Bogusz, Cécile Moreau, and Martina Petranikova. 2025. "Li-Ion Battery Recycling via High-Intensity Milling Followed by Organic Acid Leaching for Preferential Lithium Extraction" Batteries 11, no. 12: 458. https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11120458

APA Style

Segura-Bailón, B., Rouquette, L., Vieceli, N., Bogusz, K., Moreau, C., & Petranikova, M. (2025). Li-Ion Battery Recycling via High-Intensity Milling Followed by Organic Acid Leaching for Preferential Lithium Extraction. Batteries, 11(12), 458. https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11120458

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