A Novel Solver for an Electrochemical–Thermal Ageing Model of a Lithium-Ion Battery

To estimate the state of health, charge, power, and safety (SoX) of lithium-ion batteries (LiBs) in real time, battery management systems (BMSs) need accurate and efficient battery models. The full-order partial two-dimensional (P2D) model is a common physics-based cell-level LiB model that faces challenges for real-time BMS implementation due to the complexity of its numerical solver. In this paper, we propose a method to discretise the P2D model equations using the Finite Volume and Verlet Integration Methods to significantly reduce the computational complexity of the solver. Our proposed iterative solver uses novel convergence criteria and physics-based initial guesses to provide high fidelity for discretised P2D equations. We also include both the kinetic-limited and diffusion-limited models for Solid Electrolyte Interface (SEI) growth into an iterative P2D solver. With these SEI models, we can estimate the capacity fade in real time once the model is tuned to the cell–voltage curve. The results are validated using three different operation scenarios, including the 1C discharge/charge cycle, multiple-C-rate discharges, and the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory dynamic stress test. The proposed solver shows at least a 4.5 times improvement in performance with less than 1% error when compared to commercial solvers.