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Review

Research Progress and a Prospect Analysis of Asexual Bamboo Reproduction

by
Shuai Ma
1,
Jin Li
2,
Jian-Ying Chen
3,
Ren-Ming Mei
4,
Kai Cui
2 and
Lan Lan
5,*
1
Chinese Academy of Forestry, Beijing 100091, China
2
State Key Laboratory of Tree Genetics and Breeding, Institute of Highland Forest Science, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Kunming 650233, China
3
General Working Station of Forest Seedling of Yunnan Province, Kunming 650215, China
4
Yunnan Provincial People’s Government Investment Project Evaluation Center, Kunming 650093, China
5
Institute of Ecological Conservation and Restoration, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Beijing 100093, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Horticulturae 2023, 9(6), 685; https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae9060685
Submission received: 26 April 2023 / Revised: 4 June 2023 / Accepted: 7 June 2023 / Published: 9 June 2023
Browse Figure
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Bamboo possesses various characteristics that make it a promising renewable biomass resource. These include rapid growth, early timber production, strong adaptability, high yield, ease of planting, wide distribution, and ease of processing. With the increasing demand for bamboo resources, rapid propagation, species selection, and breeding have always been the focus of bamboo research. However, the long and unpredictable flowering cycle of bamboo, coupled with the difficulties of obtaining seeds, has made it difficult for mass-scale propagation and the introduction of desirable traits through classical breeding methods, which hinders the genetic improvement of bamboo. Asexual propagation, tissue culture, and genetic transformation present an effective breeding method to hasten the breeding process, improve breeding efficiency, and screen and create superior new varieties, and may significantly enhance the genetic improvement of bamboo and the development of the bamboo industry. This study reviews recent research on the asexual propagation of bamboo, propagation methods, cultivation means, influencing factors, and transgenes. The bamboo species that participated in asexual reproduction were systematically sorted according to the type of explants, the formula of the culture medium, and the results achieved. In addition, the bottlenecks and development trends in each training process were identified. This study provides a reference for the rapid propagation and genetic breeding of bamboo plants.

1. Introduction

Bamboo, which belongs to the Bambusoideae subfamily of the Poaceae grass family, is a significant non-timber forest resource. The global bamboo forest area exceeds 47 million hm2, with an annual yield exceeding 500 million tons [1]. The world has more than 70 genera and 1600 species of bamboo that are mainly distributed in tropical and subtropical regions and serve as crucial raw materials for construction, papermaking, handicrafts, food, medicine, and other industries [2]. As a horticultural species, bamboo not only has a high ornamental value but also produces good ecological benefits. It has ecological functions that include water source conservation, noise reduction, the adsorption of dust and toxic gases, water and soil conservation, wind disaster prevention, air purification, and microclimate regulation, which is conducive to improving the local ecological environment [3]. China ranks top among bamboo resources in terms of area, quantity, accumulation, processing level, and yield (Figure 1) [4]. With the increasing restrictions on the commercial logging of natural forests, bamboo has become a valuable sustainable resource.
Traditionally, bamboo is propagated via seeds, branches, and cuttings. However, seed reproduction faces challenges, such as irregular long flowering cycles, a single fruit, low seed setting rates, short seed vigor, strong heterogeneity of seed population, and consumption of seeds by birds, rodents, and wild animals [5,6,7,8,9]. Similarly, large propagules, limited availability, difficulty in long-distance transportation, seasonal dependence, a low survival rate, and limited rooting of propagules are critical constraints to the vegetative reproduction of bamboo [10]. Consequently, the proportion of exploitation and utilization of bamboo resources in China is low, with a lack of intensive management of bamboo forests and inadequate bamboo breeding, despite the country’s abundant bamboo resources. Asexual reproduction may be an effective breeding method, as it may accelerate the breeding process and allow for the selection of desirable traits. In other words, better methods of asexual reproduction for bamboo would have a positive impact on the development of the bamboo industry. This study reviews recent progress on asexual bamboo reproduction domestically and internationally and discusses factors affecting the success of bamboo tissue culture and future perspectives to provide a reference for gene function research and molecular breeding of bamboo.

2. Means of Asexual Reproduction of Bamboo

Currently, the primary methods of asexual bamboo propagation include off-set and rhizome planting, layering, marcotting, and branch and culm cutting [11,12,13]. Transplanting a mother bamboo with a rhizome involves selecting a mother bamboo with a full root trunk and vigorous growth for ramets. During excavation, attention should be paid to retaining bamboo rhizomes, protecting the rooted trunk, bud eyes, and fibrous roots, and planting immediately. Cutting, as a propagation method, has been widely used for various important bamboo species [12]. Generally, the culm stump, branches, and buds on the culm of sympodial bamboo have a reproductive ability, so they can be propagated by cutting. The culms and branches of monopodial bamboo have no reproductive ability, and only the buds on the culm stump can develop into rhizomes and bamboo, so they cannot be propagated by cutting. For instance, Oxytenanthera braunii stem burying and cutting experiments showed that the rooting rates of 2-year-old culms and 1-year-old primary branches were higher than 1-year-old culms and current-year primary branches, respectively. Cuttings treated with rooting powder ABT and a cutting bed of sand plus 10% vermiculite could improve rooting rates [14]. A new cold-resistant cultivar of Bambusa multiplex, “Dongcui,” was expanded using mother bamboo transplanting and cutting [15]. The branch cuttings can be used to propagate Dendrocalamus asper. When the cuttings were treated with IBA, the rooting ability, shoot number and length, and survival rate were significantly enhanced [16].

3. Research Status of Bamboo Tissue Culture

Research on bamboo tissue culture started relatively late; Alexander and Rao [17] being the first to incubate mature bamboo embryos on an artificially prepared medium to germinate complete plantlets in 1968. Since the 1980s, systematic studies on bamboo tissue culture have been carried out. Metha et al. [18] reported the use of mature embryos of B. arundinacea to induce callus and obtain regenerated plants through somatic embryogenesis. In China, bamboo tissue culture was first reported in 1960 by Que and Zhuge [19], who used stem nodes with young buds of D. membranceus and B. arundinacea as explants to induce callus and roots after bud induction to form complete plants. Various bamboo genera, such as Acidosasa, Bambusa, Dendrocalamus, Indocalamus, Phyllostachys, and Thysostachys, have been tissue cultured. Results reported include callus induction, plant regeneration, bud propagation, in vitro flowering, and suspension cell line establishment. However, tissue culture results in different bamboo species varying significantly (Table 1). Generally, sympodial bamboo shows a stronger regeneration ability than monopodial bamboo. Currently, the bamboo tissue culture of sympodial bamboo is more frequently reported in the research. A large number of regenerated plants can be directly generated via bud propagation in a bamboo tissue culture, which has been applied in commercial production. However, bamboo researchers are more concerned with the study of more efficient and stable potential reproduction rates, such as callus induction and the establishment of a plant regeneration system, suspension culture, protoplast culture, and transgenic and in vitro flowering. The mature bamboo tissue culture system has good application prospects for rapid propagation, germplasm conservation, active substance development, genetic transformation, in vitro flowering, mutant screening, artificial seeds, somatic hybridization, and haploid breeding.

4. Culture Methods of Bamboo Tissue Culture

4.1. Embryo Culture

Directly inducing adventitious shoots and roots from bamboo seed embryos has been successful for the later regeneration of whole plants. Li et al. [45] used seed embryos of D. sinicus as explants to screen the best medium for inducing, proliferating, and rooting adventitious shoots with an orthogonal design. Song et al. [46] used mature embryos of Fargesia fungosa as explants for rapid propagation and found the optimal proliferation medium for adventitious shoots to be MS with 3 mg/L of BAP, while the optimal rooting medium was half-strength MS plus 3 mg/L of IBA. This resulted in a root regeneration frequency of 100% and a survival rate of 98% after transplantation. Ji et al. [47] used mature embryos of F. yunnanensis as explants for in vitro rapid propagation, with the optimal proliferation medium of adventitious shoots being MS plus 3 mg/L of BAP and 1 mg/L of KT, supplemented with 0.001 mg/L of TDZ, and the optimal rooting medium was half-strength MS plus 3 mg/L of IBA, resulting in a 100% rooting and plantlet survival rate. Liu et al. [48] established a rapid propagation system using P. pubescens seeds as explants to induce adventitious shoots and roots. The regeneration ability of the bamboo embryo is strong, but the instability of bamboo flowering leads to limited embryo materials, which limits the research of bamboo plant tissue culture to a certain extent.

4.2. Rapid Tube Propagation

Young shoots, apical buds, axillary buds, and shoot clusters are usually selected as explants for the direct induction of adventitious shoots, without the need for callus induction, to facilitate the rapid propagation of bamboo species. This culture method allows for the screening of bamboo varieties and maintains the traits of the mother plant. Yang et al. [49] studied the growth and leaf color variation of tube seedlings with the lateral bud growth point of Pseudosasa japonica as explants. They found that the addition of cytokinin led to root seedling production, and the tube seedlings grew well and had stable flower and leaf characteristics. Zhang et al. [50] used stem segments with buds of Sasa pygmaea as explants to induce cluster buds and rooting cultures, resulting in a survival rate of more than 98% of the regenerated plants. Sharma et al. [51] used axillary buds with nodes of B. nutan as explants for the in vitro culture of cluster buds and roots, successfully regenerating plants with a yield of more than three times bamboo seedlings. Saini et al. [52] used axillary buds of Drepanostachyum falcatum as explants to regenerate complete plants and obtained the optimal plant hormone concentration for shoot induction, proliferation, and rooting. It is the most commonly used method in bamboo tissue culture because it has a fast propagation speed and can maintain the stability of a variety of characteristics without dedifferentiation and redifferentiation.

4.3. Callus Culture

Mature embryos, young shoots, buds, and inflorescences of bamboo have been used as explants to obtain callus and then regenerate plantlets. Callus re-differentiation can occur via somatic embryogenesis and organogenesis. Multiple bamboo species, such as D. strictus, B. vulgaris, D. giganteus, B. affinis, T. siamensis, D. hamiltonii, D. barbatus, P. edulis, A. edulis, D. latiflorus, and T. siamensis, have been reported to produce callus, and this can be differentiated into adventitious shoot, roots, and whole plants. In addition, in vitro flowering has been observed in the tender node culture of B. vulgari, D. giganteus, and D. strictus [28]. However, several bamboo species produced calli, but complete plant regeneration was not attained. For example, Ogita [31] reported callus induction from bamboo shoots of P. nigra but failed to regenerate plants due to the severe browning of explants. This culture method is mainly used for further genetic transformation research.

4.4. Other Culture Methods

In addition to the three aforementioned methods, progress has been reported for suspension culture, protoplast culture, and anther and inflorescence culture, albeit at a slower pace. Suspension culture involves transferring undifferentiated callus to a liquid medium for shaking culture, thereby obtaining a large number of dispersed and uniform suspensions, which are mainly composed of cell aggregates, from a few to over 100 cells. Callus was induced and suspension cell lines were established in D. membranceus [53], B. multiplex [54], and P. nigra [31]. Protoplast culture entails removing the cell wall of plant cells and isolating protoplasts; then, these are placed in an appropriate culture media. Through cell wall regeneration and cell division into cell clusters, these cells produce calli or embryoids, and eventually, they might develop into a complete plant. Tseng et al. [55] first isolated protoplasts from the leaves of B. arundinacea. Huang et al. [56,57,58] isolated protoplasts from suspension cells of B. oldhamii and B. multiplex, obtained callus by culture, and regenerated complete plants. Que and Zhuge [53] obtained a large number of protoplasts from suspension cells and sterile seedling leaves of D. membranceus. The culture of inflorescences has been reported using young inflorescences of B. oldhamii [21] and B. beecheyana [22], and anthers of D. latiflorus [25] have been used as explants to induce callus, which further differentiated into whole plants. Due to the special reproductive biological characteristics of bamboo plants, there are few studies on the use of protoplasts, anthers, and inflorescences in bamboo tissue culture by embryo culture, bud propagation, and callus culture.

5. Constraints on the Tissue Culture of Bamboo

5.1. Basal Medium

The success of plant tissue culture is dependent on the appropriate selection of a basic medium. Different media have distinct characteristics that are suitable for different plant types and explant materials. Several basic media such as MS, 1/2MS, 3/4MS, modified MS, B5, N6, NB, and Nitsch have been utilized for bamboo tissue culture. Studies have shown that the MS medium is the most effective medium for embryogenesis and organogenesis in bamboo tissue culture and has been used for the plant regeneration process. For instance, Zhang et al. [35] observed that the callus induction rate of mature zygotic embryos of D. hamiltonii was higher in 1/2MS, NB, and HB (Holley and Baker medium) media. However, the MS medium resulted in more embryogenic calli. Similarly, Zang et al. [40] discovered that the callus induction rate of shoot tips in a 1/2MS and MS medium was higher than B5, Nitsch, and White. However, the MS medium resulted in more embryogenic calli. Yuan et al. [39] used MS, NB, N6, B5, and CC (Potrykus medium) as the basic medium to culture the zygotic embryos of moso bamboo in vitro and found that the MS medium resulted in a higher callus induction rate and more embryogenic calli. Although the other four media could induce calli, the induction rate of embryogenic calli was low. Additionally, the callus grew slowly and turned brown easily.

5.2. Explant Types

The selection of appropriate explants is crucial for the establishment of a plant regeneration system, as some materials may only induce calli but fail to induce plant regeneration. Currently, a wide range of materials has been used as explants for bamboo tissue culture, including seeds, zygotic embryos, shoot tips, anthers, inflorescence, nodal buds, stem segments, and so on (Table 1). Studies have demonstrated that the zygotic embryos of seeds are more effective in inducing embryogenic calli and regenerating plants than other materials. Several species of bamboo, including D. strictus [20,30], B. multiplex [34], D. hamiltonii [35], D. barbatus [38], moso bamboo [39], and Otatea acuminata [26], have successfully induced embryonic calli from mature seed zygotic embryos to obtain regenerated plants.

5.3. Plant Growth Regulators

In the field of plant tissue culture, the type and concentration of hormones, as well as the ratio of different hormones, are critical in regulating cell differentiation and morphogenesis. Several plant growth regulators are typically used in bamboo tissue culture, including auxin and its analogs (2,4-D, IAA, NAA, IBA, and picloram), cytokinin (BAP, KT, and TDZ), and abscisic acid (ABA) (Table 1). 2,4-D is essential for callus induction, and its concentration is usually 3 mg/L. It has been observed that adding ABA to the medium promotes the formation of compact embryogenic calli [46]. The combination of BAP, KT, and NAA is typically used for adventitious shoot differentiation, while IBA and NAA are commonly used to facilitate rooting.

5.4. Sterilization of Explants

Surface sterilization is a pivotal step in preparing viable and healthy explants in plant tissue cultures. Explant contamination is determined by the source of explants, incomplete sterilization, and the surrounding environment. Therefore, it is necessary to employ different and sequential protocols to solve this problem [59]. To date, various disinfection agents and methods have been employed, including potassium permanganate, 70% or 75% ethanol, mercury dichloride (0.05–0.2%), and sodium hypochlorite (0.5–2.0%). Wang et al. [38] found that the most efficient method for disinfecting D. barbatus seeds was to use 30% bleach and two drops of Tween for 1–2 h, followed by 0.1% mercury dichloride for 10 min under an ultra-clean bench. However, due to the toxic nature of mercury dichloride, proper disposal methods should be employed to minimize environmental pollution. Alternatively, Jiang et al. [60] discovered that chlorine disinfection was significantly more effective in sterilizing mature seeds of moso bamboo compared to sodium hypochlorite and potassium permanganate disinfection methods. Comprehensive tests of disinfection agents and disinfection times are necessary to determine the most suitable sterilization method.

6. Bamboo Transformation

The establishment of an efficient and stable genetic transformation system for bamboo is crucial for gene function research studies of important traits and to speed up molecular breeding programs. Moso bamboo, a representative of monopodial bamboo, had its whole genome sequenced by 2013 [61] and was assembled at the chromosome level in 2018. Building on this achievement, Huang et al. [62] applied CRISPR/Cas9 technology to moso bamboo for the first time, achieving precise genome editing. This achievement is likely to impact future research on gene function and transgenic breeding of moso bamboo. Agrobacterium-mediated transformation is the main method used to obtain stable transgenic plantlets in a genetic transformation. Several essential factors affect the efficiency of transformation, including genotype, callus status, agrobacterium strain type, bacterial concentration, infection time, culture conditions, and antibiotic selection. Various candidate genes that may control crucial economic traits, such as floral organ formation, rapid growth, internode elongation, primary thickening growth, and lignification, have been identified in bamboo by multi-omics methods. However, compared to other Poaceae plants, bamboo’s transgenic technology is still immature. The genetic transformation has been reported for bamboo species such as P. edulis [62], D. latiflorus [42,63,64,65], D. hamiltonii [66,67], B. emeiensis [68], and D. farinosus [69], but the transformation efficiency remains low (Table 2).

7. Conclusions and Future Prospects

The distribution of bamboo resources in the world is uneven, and the Asia-Pacific bamboo area is one of the most important distribution areas of bamboo plants. China is the most important distribution country of bamboo resources in Asia and has been highly valued and widely concerned. The traditional method of asexual bamboo reproduction is costly, and it is difficult to achieve mass propagation of bamboo in a short time; it cannot meet the current demand of “replacing wood with bamboo” and the rapid development of the bamboo industry in China. Tissue culture is an effective way for the rapid propagation of bamboo, especially for those important economic bamboo species with long flowering cycles, a serious separation of progeny from seedlings, and the difficulty of obtaining fertile seeds. The selection of bamboo species is relatively single and is mainly concentrated in the genera of Dendrocalamus, Bambusa, and Phyllostachys. Nearly 90% of the bamboo species with successful tissue culture belong to clustered bamboo, such as D. latiflorus, D. asper, D. sinicus, etc. The underlying mechanism is unclear. It may be related to bamboo species, treatment, and environmental conditions. In the process of tissue culture, the types and ratios of plant hormones are very important. Different varieties and genotypes have different responses to plant growth regulators. At present, there is no widely applicable hormone ratio for all bamboo plants.
The application of genetic engineering technology in numerous plant species has been successful, but the lack of an efficient regeneration system is a significant obstacle to its application in bamboo. The regeneration efficiency of bamboo is influenced by several factors, with genotype being the most crucial. Regeneration systems of sympodial bamboo have been mainly reported due to the morphological and genetic features of bamboo. In general, sympodial bamboo has a more robust regeneration ability than monopodial bamboo. Tissue culture faces three significant problems: biotic contamination, browning, and vitrification, with bamboo mainly facing biotic contamination and browning. The unique morphological structure of bamboo makes it difficult to achieve true asepsis as the plants carry endophytic bacteria. Hence, careful considerations must be made when selecting explants, disinfectants, and disinfection time. The metabolic pathway of phenolic compounds causing browning during tissue culture is now better understood, and the addition of anti-browning agents to the medium, such as citric acid, ascorbic acid, cysteine, activated carbon, and polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP), has proven to be effective. There are few reports on suspension culture and protoplast culture that require further improvement.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, S.M. and L.L.; writing—original draft preparation, S.M.; writing—review and editing, J.L., J.-Y.C., R.-M.M. and K.C.; supervision, L.L.; project administration, L.L.; funding acquisition, L.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This study was funded by Essential Scientific Research of Chinese National Non-profit Institute (grant No. CAFYBB2021ZW003), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (grant No. 32022058), and the Training Objects of Technological Innovation Talents in Yunnan Province (grant No. 2019HB074).

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Horticulturae 09 00685 g001 550
Figure 1. Distribution of different bamboo species in China.
Figure 1. Distribution of different bamboo species in China.
Horticulturae 09 00685 g001
Table
Table 1. Tissue culture of different bamboo species.
Table 1. Tissue culture of different bamboo species.
SpeciesExplantBasal MediumPlant Growth Regulators (as Indicated in mg/L Except Otherwise Mentioned)ResultsReferences
D. strictusSeedsB5* 2,4-D (30 µM)Somatic embryogenesis [20]
B5 (liquid)**,***,# IBA (0.5 µM) + NAA (0.1 µM)
1/2 B5 (liquid)
D. oldhamiYoung inflorescenceMS*,# 2,4-D (3.0) + KT (2.0)Somatic embryogenesis[21]
B. beecheyanaYoung inflorescencemMS*,# 2,4-D (3.0) + KT (2.0)Somatic embryogenesis[22]
P. viridisYoung leafMS + Nitsch*,# 2,4-D (9.0 µM)Somatic embryogenesis[23]
SinocalamuslatiflorusMature zygotic embryoMS*,# 2,4-D (6.0) + KT (3.0)Somatic embryogenesis[24]
S.latiflorusAntherN6*,# 2,4-D (1.0) + BAP (1.0)Somatic embryogenesis[25]
Otatea acuminataZygotic embryoB5*,# 2,4-D (3.0) + BAP (0.5)Somatic embryogenesis[26]
S. latiflorusSheath of the bamboo sproutMS* 2,4-D (4.0–8.0) + KT (3.0)Callus culture[27]
B. vulgari,
D. giganteus D. strictus		Nodal segment and mature zygotic embryoMS*,x 2,4-D (2.0) + KT (0.5) + Ads (10.0)Somatic embryogenesis and in vitro flowering[28]
1/2MS
# none
Node1/2MS (liquid)## IBA (0.25) + GA3 (0.5) + Ads (0.5)
B. beecheyanaRootsMS*,# 2,4-D (3.0) + KT (2.0)Somatic embryogenesis [29]
D. strictusSeedsMS* 2,4-D (30 µM)Somatic embryogenesis [30]
** NAA (5.0 µM) + KT (5.0 µM)
mMS***,# NAA (3.0 µM) + IBA (2.5 µM)
P. nigraBamboo shootsm1/2MS*,### 2,4-D (3.0 µM)Callus and cell suspension culture[31]
m1/2MS (liquid)
P. pubescensBamboo shootsMS* 2, 4-D (3.0) + BAP (1.0)Callus culture[32]
B. affinisBud and young sheathMS* 2, 4-D (5.0) + BAP (0.2–0.5)Plant regeneration[33]
** BAP (5.0) + NAA (0.2)
*** BAP (1.0) + NAA (0.5–2.0)
B. multiplexSpikelet and embryoNB* 2, 4-D (4.0)Plant regeneration[34]
MSxx BAP (3.0) + KT (3.0)
** none
*** NAA (2.0)
D. hamiltoniiMature zygotic embryoMS* 2,4-D (1.0–3.0)Plant regeneration[35]
** BAP (2.0) + KT (1.0) + NAA (1.0)
1/2MS*** IBA (5.0)
D. latiflorusAntherM8*,xxx PAA (15.0) + NAA (2.0) + BAP (0.5)Plant regeneration[36]
P. violascensZygotic embryoMS*,#,xxx Picloram (0.1) + BAP (0.1)Somatic embryogenesis[37]
D. barbatusSeedsMS* 2,4-D (5.0)Plant regeneration[38]
** 2,4-D (0.5) + BAP (1.0) + KT (0.25)
1/2MS*** BAP (0.5) + NAA (1.0) + IBA (0.4)
P. pubescensZygotic embryoMS* 2,4-D (4.0) + ZT (0.1)Somatic embryogenesis[39]
** ZT (5.0–7.07)
***,# NAA (2.0)
D. hamiltoniiShoot tipsMS* 2,4-D (3.0) + BAP (1.0)Plant regeneration[40]
** BAP (1.0) + KT (0.3) + NAA (0.3)
1/2MS*** IBA (3.0)
A. edulisStem segmentMS* 2,4-D (2.0) + BAP (0.5) + KT (1.0)Plant regeneration[41]
** BAP (3.0) + KT (1.0) + TDZ (0.05) + NAA (0.5)
*** BAP (2.0) + KT (0.1) + NAA (0.1)
D. latiflorusYoung shootMS* 2,4-D (8.0) + IBA (0.5)Plant regeneration[42]
** BAP (2.0) + NAA (0.5)
1/2MS*** IAA (1.0)
T. siamensisYoung shootMS* 2,4-D (11.3 µM) + KT (4.65 µM) + IBA (1.96 µM)In vitro propagation[43]
** BAP (11.1 µM) + IBA (3.43 µM)
***,# NAA (26.85 µM)
D. sinicusHypocotylsMS* 2,4-D (3.1) + BAP (2.1)Plant regeneration[44]
** BAP (2.0) + KT (0.3) + NAA (0.3)
*** IBA (4.0) + NAA (1.0)
MS, Murashige and Skoog medium; B5, Gamborg medium; N6, Chu medium; M8, Mei medium; mMS, modified Murashige and Skoog medium; NB, modified Chu and Gamborg medium; NAA, α-naphthaleneacetic acid; BAP, 6-benzyladenine; 2,4-D, 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid; IBA, indole-3-butyric acid, KT, kinetin; TDZ, thidiazuron; IAA, 3-Indoleacetic acid; ZT, zeatin; Ads, adenine sulphate; PAA, phenylacetic acid; GA3, gibberellic acid; *, callus induction; **, shoot differentiation; ***, root induction; #, plant regeneration; ##, in vitro flowering; ###, suspension culture; x, subculture; xx, pre-differentiation; xxx, embryoid formation.
Table
Table 2. Genetic transformation of different bamboo species.
Table 2. Genetic transformation of different bamboo species.
SpeciesExplantGeneAchievementsReferences
D. latiflorusYoung shootsLcThe anthocyanin over-accumulation phenotype was generated[42]
P. edulisImmature embryoPDSThe transformation efficiency was 5%, and the pdspds2 mutant was obtained by the CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing system[62]
D. latiflorusBamboo shoots tip growing coneGUSThe antibiotic screening system and agrobacterium-mediated transformation system were established[63]
D. latiflorusAntherCodAHyg concentration, pre-culture time, infection time, co-culture time, and AS concentration were the main factors affecting the efficiency of genetic transformation[64]
D. latiflorusAntherCodAThe cold resistance of transgenic plants was enhanced[65]
D. hamiltoniiLeaf basesGUSGUS was highly expressed, and positive signals were detected in PCR, slot blot, and southern hybridization[66]
D. hamiltoniiMature embryoHPTTen resistant regenerated plants were obtained, and the transformation rate was 35.7%[67]
B. emeiensisNewly emerged budsCRN1Kanamycin, PPT, and hygromycin were not suitable for resistant callus screening[68]
D. farinosusMature embryo4CLThe transformation efficiency was 9%, and the expression of the transgenic callus and endogenous 4CL was inhibited[69]
Gigantochloa brevisvagina, Gigantochloa tekserah, D. hamiltoniiMature embryoHTD2Six regenerated seedlings (four albescent seedlings) of D. hamiltonii, two tubes of callus with green spots, and one tube of callus differentiated from roots were obtained[70]
Mniochloa abersendBudsCodAThe transformation rate of the resistant callus was 26.67%[71]
D. asperShoot tipsGFPTransient fluorescence expression of GFP was observed in the callus[72]
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Ma, S.; Li, J.; Chen, J.-Y.; Mei, R.-M.; Cui, K.; Lan, L. Research Progress and a Prospect Analysis of Asexual Bamboo Reproduction. Horticulturae 2023, 9, 685. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae9060685

AMA Style

Ma S, Li J, Chen J-Y, Mei R-M, Cui K, Lan L. Research Progress and a Prospect Analysis of Asexual Bamboo Reproduction. Horticulturae. 2023; 9(6):685. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae9060685

Chicago/Turabian Style

Ma, Shuai, Jin Li, Jian-Ying Chen, Ren-Ming Mei, Kai Cui, and Lan Lan. 2023. "Research Progress and a Prospect Analysis of Asexual Bamboo Reproduction" Horticulturae 9, no. 6: 685. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae9060685

APA Style

Ma, S., Li, J., Chen, J. -Y., Mei, R. -M., Cui, K., & Lan, L. (2023). Research Progress and a Prospect Analysis of Asexual Bamboo Reproduction. Horticulturae, 9(6), 685. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae9060685

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