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Article

Seasonal Variation in Volatile Profiles of Lemon Catnip (Nepeta cataria var. citriodora) Essential Oil and Hydrolate

by
Milica Aćimović
1,
Biljana Lončar
2,
Milica Rat
3,
Mirjana Cvetković
4,
Jovana Stanković Jeremić
4,
Milada Pezo
5 and
Lato Pezo
6,*
1
Institute of Field and Vegetable Crops Novi Sad (IFVCNS)—National Institute of the Republic of Serbia, Maksima Gorkog 30, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia
2
Faculty of Technology Novi Sad, University of Novi Sad, Bulevar Cara Lazara 1, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia
3
Faculty of Science, University of Novi Sad, Trg Dositeja Obradovića 3, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia
4
Institute of Chemistry, Technology and Metallurgy (IHTM)—National Institute of the Republic of Serbia, University of Belgrade, Njegoševa 12, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
5
Department of Thermal Engineering and Energy, “Vinča” Institute of Nuclear Sciences—National Institute of the Republic of Serbia, University of Belgrade, 11001 Belgrade, Serbia
6
Institute of General and Physical Chemistry, University of Belgrade, Studentski Trg 12-16, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Horticulturae 2025, 11(7), 862; https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae11070862
Submission received: 13 June 2025 / Revised: 10 July 2025 / Accepted: 17 July 2025 / Published: 21 July 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Medicinals, Herbs, and Specialty Crops)
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Abstract

Lemon catnip (Nepeta cataria var. citriodora) is an underutilized aromatic and medicinal plant known for its high essential oil yield and distinctive lemon-like scent, and is widely used in the pharmaceutical, cosmetic, food, and biopesticide industries. Unlike typical catnip, it lacks nepetalactones and is rich in terpene alcohols, such as nerol and geraniol, making it a promising substitute for lemon balm. Despite its diverse applications, little attention has been paid to the valorization of byproducts from essential oil distillation, such as hydrolates and their secondary recovery oils. This study aimed to thoroughly analyze the volatile compound profiles of the essential oil from Lemon catnip and the recovery oil derived from its hydrolate over three consecutive growing seasons, with particular emphasis on how temperature and precipitation influence the major volatile constituents. The essential oil was obtained via semi-industrial steam distillation, producing hydrolate as a byproduct, which was then further processed using a Likens–Nickerson apparatus to extract the recovery oil, also known as secondary oil. Both essential and recovery oils were predominantly composed of terpene alcohols, with nerol (47.5–52.3% in essential oils; 43.5–54.3% in recovery oils) and geraniol (25.2–27.9% in essential oils; 29.4–32.6% in recovery oils) as the primary components. While sesquiterpene hydrocarbons were mostly confined to the essential oil, the recovery oil was distinguished by a higher presence of monooxygenated and more hydrophilic terpenes. Over the three-year period, elevated temperatures led to increased levels of geraniol, geranial, neral, and citronellal in both oils, whereas cooler conditions favored the accumulation of nerol and linalool, especially in the recovery oils. Higher precipitation was associated with elevated concentrations of nerol and linalool but decreased levels of geraniol, geranial, and neral, possibly due to dilution or degradation processes.

1. Introduction

Nepeta cataria L. (1753) is a Eurasian species found across Western Europe (Iberian Peninsula, France), Southern and Southeastern Europe (Apennine Peninsula, Balkan Peninsula), Central Asia, and as far east as Japan. As an introduced alien species, it is now widespread in South and North America, as well as in Scandinavia and the British Isles [1]. Commonly known as catnip, it synthesizes iridoid monoterpenes called nepetalactones, which act as attractants for cats and are responsible for the plant’s popular name [2]. Consequently, catnip is widely favored by cat owners and is a key ingredient in the pet toy industry [3,4]. In addition to its appeal to felines, catnip is a highly effective natural repellent against mosquitoes and various pests, including flies, bed bugs, cockroaches, ticks, mites, aphids, and weevils [5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15]. The insect-repellent properties of catnip are primarily attributed to the presence of nepetalactones [16].
In Western Europe, the distinct taxon N. cataria var. citriodora Dumoulin ex Lej. (1825) was first described in the Maastricht region of the Netherlands. Unlike typical catnip, this variety lacks nepetalactones and emits a pleasant citrus scent, earning it the name Lemon catnip. It differs morphologically from the typical taxon in having blunter-toothed leaves and smaller flowers [17]. Due to its unique volatile compounds, Lemon catnip has been introduced into horticulture and is now commonly cultivated. This variety also produces significantly more essential oil than catnip, which is rich in nepetalactones, compounds generally associated with lower essential oil content [18]. In addition to its use in essential oil production, Lemon catnip has demonstrated superior growth performance compared to catnip [19].
Lemon catnip is widely used as a medicinal and spice plant, as well as an essential oil-bearing crop [4]. In traditional medicine, it is valued for its therapeutic properties, and herbal infusions are used as remedies for sleep disorders, nervous conditions, stomach ailments, and respiratory issues [20]. In the pharmaceutical industry, it is highly regarded for its diverse biological activities, including antioxidant, hepatoprotective, antidiabetic, sedative, antidepressant, spasmolytic, anti-nociceptive, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, and antimicrobial properties [21]. Lemon catnip is of particular interest in the fragrance industry as a corrigent in pharmaceutical preparations due to its distinctive lemon-like odor [22]. Beyond its medicinal uses, it is an important spice in the food industry and for home cooking. It is commonly incorporated into sausages, liqueurs, vermouth, soft drinks, canned vegetables and fruits, and desserts [23]. Finally, the essential oil of Lemon catnip has a wide range of applications across various industrial sectors, including the food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industries, perfumes, household cleaning agents, synthesis of biopesticides, and industrial production of citral [11,24,25].
In general, Lemon catnip is an underutilized essential oil-bearing plant, despite the suitable conditions for its cultivation in Serbia [25,26]. Lemon catnip and lemon balm (Melissa officinalis) have very similar essential oil scents, both characterized by a lemony note [27]. However, due to its significantly higher essential oil content, Lemon catnip has been proposed as a potential substitute for lemon balm [22]. Similar to lemon balm, Lemon catnip is a honey-bearing plant that contributes to apiculture [28].
Many scientific articles have examined the essential oils of catnip and Lemon catnip, focusing on their chemical composition and the influence of various factors, such as harvest time, plant organ, and geographic origin. Additionally, the biological activity of the essential oil has been well studied. However, to date, there are limited data on the chemical characterization and biological activity of residues obtained during the essential oil distillation of catnip, including wastewater, solid waste, and hydrolate [29,30].
Taking into account that weather conditions limit productivity and yield, this investigation aimed to evaluate the influence of temperature and precipitation on the accumulation of the main volatile compounds in the essential oil and corresponding hydrolate of Lemon catnip.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Plant Material and Cultivation Practices

Lemon catnip from the Institute of Field and Vegetable Crops Novi Sad collection (2-1401, BUNS Herbarium) was cultivated in experimental fields at the Department of Alternative Crops in Bački Petrovac (45°20′48″ N; 19°40′96″ E; altitude 87 m asl.), Vojvodina Province, in the northern part of Serbia (Figure 1). The plantation was established from seedlings in the spring of 2019 in carbonate chernozem soil. The experimental plot measured 70 m × 5 m and consisted of seven rows with an inter-row distance of 0.7 m. During the growing season, weedswere controlled mechanically through hoeing and weeding. No protective measures against diseases or pests were applied. Weather data on precipitation and temperature were obtained from the meteorological station within the Department (Figure 2). Plants were harvested at full flowering in July 2020, 2021, and 2022, and air-dried until reaching a constant weight before being further processed by steam distillation.

2.2. Volatile Compounds Isolation

The essential oil was isolated by steam distillation using a stainless steel semi-industrial apparatus in triplicate. Approximately 30 kg of dried Lemon catnip was placed in a stainless-steel distillation vessel, and steam was forced through the plant material. Volatile compounds co-distill with the steam and, after cooling and condensation, are collected in the Florentine vessel. All three main components of the semi-industrial distillation unit were made in the former Yugoslavia: a high-pressure boiler (Ventilator Ltd., Zagreb, Croatia), a stainless steel distillation vessel (Inox Ltd., Bački Petrovac, Serbia), and a glass condenser with a Florentine vessel (Iskra Ltd., Poreč, Croatia).
The essential oil floats on the water surface, while some water-soluble compounds diffuse into the water and dissolve, imparting a specific flavor and fragrance similar to the corresponding essential oil. After four hours of distillation, the essential oil was decanted and placed in a separation funnel with the addition of Na2SO4. The solution was then filtered through filter paper and stored in a dark glass bottle for further investigation. After decanting the essential oil, the hydrolate collected in the Florentine vessel was further processed using the Likens-Nickerson apparatus to extract the recovery oil. The Likens–Nickerson extraction technique combines steam distillation and solvent extraction using a glass apparatus composed of two round-bottom flasks: one holding 400 mL of hydrolate and another holding 5 mL of dichloromethane. These flasks were connected to ports on a glass manifold and heated independently for two hours. The resulting vapors were directed into the central section of the manifold, where the recovered oil was collected.

2.3. Analysis of Volatile Profiles

Gas chromatography analysis of the essential oils and recovery oils from the hydrolate of Lemon catnip was performed on an Agilent 7890A GC-FID, combined with a nonpolar HP-5MS fused-silica capillary column (30 m × 0.25 mm, film thickness 0.25 μm), and Agilent 5973 GC-MSD (all Agilent Technologies, Santa Clara, CA, USA). The compounds were identified based on retention indices calculated with respect to a set of C8 to C24 alkane mixtures and by comparing them with reference mass spectra from the Wiley and NIST databases.

2.4. A Literature Review of Volatile Profiles Based on Scientific Databases

The literature review of the chemical composition of the essential oil of the investigated species was searched in June 2025. The search was conducted within article titles, abstracts, and keywords using the terms “Nepeta cataria”, “Nepeta cataria var. citriodora”, “catnip”, and “lemon catnip”, in combination with “essential oil” and “volatile oil”. Three databases were used: Scopus, Web of Science, and PubMed. To ensure comprehensive coverage, relevant publications from the Google Scholar database were also included. The collected data were further used to construct the unrooted cluster tree.

2.5. Statistical Analysis

Cluster Analysis (CA) and Principal Component Analysis (PCA) were utilized to investigate the chemical composition of volatile compounds in essential oils from different lemon catnip. The volatile profiles of lemon catnip were estimated using average annual data according to weather conditions (temperature and precipitation), and appropriate regression coefficients (KT and KP, respectively) were calculated for the essential oil and oil recovered from the hydrolate samples. Statistical analysis of the data was conducted using Statistica 10 software.
An unrooted cluster tree was constructed to analyze the chemical similarities among different catnip samples from the literature. The clustering calculation was performed using the Analysis of Phylogenetics and Evolution (APE) package in Python version 4.3, applying appropriate algorithms to assess relationships and differences among the literature data samples.

3. Results

3.1. Volatile Compounds in Essential Oils and Recovery Oils

The detailed volatile profiles of essential oils (EOs) and recovery oils (ROs) derived from the hydrolate of lemon catnip for each year of investigation are presented in Table 1, while the range of volatile compounds, along with the regression coefficients for temperature (Kt) and precipitation (Kp), are provided in Table 2.
The essential oil samples from three successive years showed the dominance of nerol (47.5–52.3%) and geraniol (25.2–27.9%), followed by geranial (7.0–8.9%) and neral (5.9–6.7%). The composition of the recovery oil from hydrolates was similar to that of essential oils, with the same dominant compounds: nerol (43.5–54.3%), geraniol (29.4–32.3%), geranial (2.9–8.4%), and neral (3.8–8.8%).
In both the essential and recovery oils of Lemon catnip (Table 1), the terpene alcohols nerol and geraniol consistently accounted for the majority of the total volatile content, jointly comprising over 75% of the essential oil profile across all the studied years. The geraniol content in the recovery oils was slightly higher than that in the essential oils in 2020 and 2022 (32.3% and 32.6%, respectively), suggesting enhanced extraction into the aqueous phase due to its partial water solubility. Neral and geranial, the cis and trans isomers of citral, displayed moderate abundance, with essential oil levels between 5.9–6.7% and 7.0–8.9%, respectively, whereas in recovery oils, geranial fluctuated markedly (2.9–8.4%), and neral peaked at 8.8% in 2020. Several mono-oxygenated compounds were uniquely or more prominently present in the recovery oil, such as 6-methyl-5-hepten-2-one (2.1% in 2020), iso-isopulegol (0.3% in 2020), and 2,6,6-trimethyl-2-cyclohexene-1-methanol (0.7% in 2020), indicating their preferential partitioning into The 1,8-cineole, α-pinene oxide, and β-pinene oxide, although detected at trace levels (<0.3%), were primarily observed in the recovery oil, likely due to their hydrophilic tendencies. Conversely, sesquiterpene hydrocarbons and oxygenated sesquiterpenes, such as trans-caryophyllene (1.2–2.7%), α-humulene, β-selinene, and caryophyllene oxide (up to 1.4%), were largely confined to essential oil, with no detectable levels in recovery oil across the three years, highlighting their hydrophobicity. The presence of trace floral and green note compounds, such as cis-rose oxide, trans-rose oxide, and citronellal, remained consistent across matrices and years but did not exceed 1% in any sample. Minor aldehydes and esters, such as neryl formate, geranyl formate, and citronellyl formate, were sporadically present only in the essential oil, with maximum levels of 0.5% for neryl formate in 2021. The interannual variation in minor constituents, including trans-chrysanthemal, borneol, and α-terpineol, suggests a strong influence of environmental factors, such as temperature and rainfall, on their biosynthesis.
The compositional data affirm that while the major volatile signature of Lemon catnip is retained in both essential oil and recovery oil, distinct compound classes are differentially partitioned during the distillation process, with lipophilic compounds enriched in essential oils and more polar volatiles selectively enriched in the hydrolate-derived recovery oil.
The regression analysis of the volatile compound profiles in Lemon catnip essential oils and recovery oils, presented in Table 2, revealed distinct and compound-specific sensitivities to weather conditions over time.
Temperature had the most pronounced positive influence on the accumulation of geraniol (KT = 2.86 in essential oil; 4.10 in recovery oil), geranial (KT = 0.29 in essential oil; 4.23 in recovery oil), neral (KT = −0.76 in essential oil; 4.03 in recovery oil), and citronellal (KT = 2.61 in essential oil; 0.00 in recovery oil), indicating enhanced biosynthesis of these monoterpene aldehydes and alcohols at higher temperatures, particularly in the hydrolate fraction. In contrast, nerol exhibited a markedly negative temperature response (KT = −2.58 in essential oil; −4.41 in recovery oil), suggesting the thermal suppression of its formation. Similarly, linalool displayed strong thermal sensitivity (KT = −1.49 in essential oil; −2.17 in recovery oil), confirming its preferential formation under cooler conditions. Regarding precipitation, the strongest positive effects were observed for nerol (KP = 0.61 in essential oil; 1.20 in recovery oil) and linalool (KP = 0.24 in essential oil; 0.35 in recovery oil), indicating increased accumulation under wetter conditions, potentially due to higher plant hydration or increased extraction efficiency of the hydrophilic compounds. Conversely, geranial (KP = −0.15 in essential oil; −0.86 in recovery oil), neral (KP = 0.05 in essential oil; −0.80 in recovery oil), and geraniol (KP = −0.52 in essential oil; −0.69 in recovery oil) showed negative correlations with precipitation, suggesting possible dilution or hydrolytic degradation effects in more humid environments.

3.2. Principal Component Analysis

Principal Component Analysis (PCA) of the volatile profile of Lemon catnip (Figure 3) revealed that principal components PC1 and PC2 effectively described the chemical variability, with distinct compound loadings. The high positive loading of cis-linalool oxide (furanoid) (+4.98% of the total variable, based on correlations) on PC1 indicates its strong association with this axis, suggesting its prominence in samples characterized by oxygenated monoterpenes. Similarly, geraniol (+4.34%) and α-terpineol (+4.23%) contributed significantly to the PC1 calculation. Negative PC1 loadings, such as neryl acetate and geranyl acetate (both −6.28% of the total variable, based on correlations), emphasize the influence of esterified compounds with lower polarity, suggesting that these compounds dominate samples with negative PC1 scores. The strong negative contributions of 1,8-cineole (−4.75%) and caryophyllene oxide (−5.20%) reinforce this interpretation, placing them in chemically distinct clusters.
PC2’s largest negative loading from borneol (−9.69%), followed by linalool (−9.60%) and nerol (−9.33%), indicates that samples with negative PC2 scores are enriched in monoterpene alcohols with potential floral and herbal notes. In contrast, aldehydes such as geranial (+7.71%) and neral (+6.30%) dominated the positive PC2 space, suggesting a lemon-like aromatic character. The moderate positive loadings for β-pinene oxide, lavandulol, and 2,6,6-trimethyl-2-cyclohexene-1-methanol (each +2.43%) reflect contributions from oxygenated terpenes with potential antimicrobial and fragrant properties. This separation along PC2 indicates a distinction between fresh, citrus-dominant, and earthy, alcohol-rich aroma profiles.
According to the results of the PCA analysis, the multivariate relationships between compounds demonstrate that ester and aldehyde content primarily define inter-sample variation. These results provide a statistically grounded chemical fingerprinting approach for differentiating essential oil chemotypes in Lemon catnip.

3.3. Cluster Analysis

Cluster analysis was performed according to the dendrogram of volatile compounds obtained in Lemon catnip essential oil and recovery oil, using Complete Linkage and City-block (Manhattan) distances, as shown in Figure 4. The two main clusters were evident: one primarily consisting of the essential oil samples (EO 2020 and EO 2022 forming the tightest sub-cluster, with EO 2021 joining them at a slightly greater distance), and another composed of the recovery oil (RO 2020 and RO 2022 forming a relatively close pair, which then merges with RO 2021 at a larger linkage distance), indicating distinct groupings between the essential oil and recovery oil categories across the observed years, while also showing within-category similarities.

4. Discussion

As stated in the introduction, catnip and Lemon catnip are two distinct taxa. This distinction was also confirmed by a literature review of essential oil composition and content (Table 3).

4.1. Essential Oil Composition of Nepeta cataria

A total of 41 scientific papers were found, referring to 154 samples, along with three samples from this study (TS), making a total of 157 accessions. The major marker compounds in catnip and Lemon catnip were nepetalactone, geraniol, citronellol, caryophyllene oxide, nerol, trans-caryophyllene, geranial, and neral. These compounds were used to form chemotype clusters (Figure 5).
Numerous studies (Table 3) have examined the influence of different taxagenotype, and cultivars, environmental conditions (e.g., radiation, drought, nitrogen stress, soil type), agrotechnical measures (e.g., fertilization), developmental stage and harvesting time, postharvest processing (fresh or dried plant material), as well as distillation methods and analytical techniques on essential oil composition. However, some of these studies only reported essential oil composition and biological activities.
Using the data presented in Table 3, the topology of the unrooted phylogenetic treet was created to illustrate the similarities between the literature and the studied samples. Based on the topology of the unrooted phylogenetic tree, several distinct clades were evident, reflecting varying degrees of proximity within the factor space. Practically, it can be said that five different chemotypes of catnip are grouped, with two major groups being particularly noticeable: one comprising samples dominated by (1) nepetalactones (below), and the other consisting of (2) geraniol-rich and (3) nerol-rich chemotypes (above), which include Lemon catnip. In addition, an intermediate chemotype (4) and a caryophyllene oxide–rich chemotype (5) were also observed.
This chemotypic diversity is not only of botanical and biochemical relevance but also has practical importance. For example, nepetalactone-dominant essential oils may be used in insect repellent formulations, while geraniol- and citronellol-rich oils, typical of lemon catnip and its RO, have substantial market value in perfumery and aromatherapy. Consequently, chemotype-based selection of cultivars and recovery oil fractions can be tailored to target specific commercial niches, enhancing the profitability and sustainability of cultivation and processing efforts.
A comprehensive study by Chaturvedi et al. [25] integrated agrochemical and genetic profiling in 30 natural Indian populations of catnip, revealing high phenotypic and genotypic diversity, with weak correlations between genetic profiles and essential-oil composition. The dominant compound was 4aα,7α,7aα-nepetalactone, ranging from 73.5% to 93.2%. Genetic analysis using 41 DNA markers indicated high polymorphism and classified the populations into three clusters. In the USA, catnip grown in greenhouses showed high nepetalactone levels (77.6%), whereas Lemon catnip exhibited high citronellol and geraniol but low nepetalactone (9.4%) content [60]. Further studies have shown that harvesting time and location significantly influence essential oil profiles in different cultivars [8,36]. In Bulgarian populations, regional differences produced distinct isomeric compositions of nepetalactone, with coastal samples showing a mix of isomers and mountain samples dominated by 4aα,7α,7aβ-nepetalactone [18].
Ukrainian cultivars of Lemon catnip (cv. Melody and Peremozhets) were rich in geraniol, nerol, citronellol, geranial, and neral, with notable nepetalactone content [23]. Egyptian studies have demonstrated that the essential oil composition of both catnip and Lemon catnip is influenced by harvest timing, water stress, salicylic acid application, and soil type. Catnip mainly contains nepetalactones and geraniol, while Lemon catnip contains nerol, citronellal, neral, and caryophyllene oxide [19,38,40]. Light quality, nitrogen, and drought stress significantly affect oil yield but not composition in greenhouse-grown plants [45,46,47]. In Kazakhstan, NPK fertilization increased biomass and oil yield, with nepetalactone reaching 79.32% [32]. Serbian wild populations exhibit seasonal variations in the distribution of essential oils across plant parts [44].
Developmental stages influenced the essential oil content and nepetalactone composition in Iranian samples, with the highest yields at the flowering and fruit set stages [48,49,50]. French populations also showed stage-dependent oil changes, where nepetalactone increased from 12.7% before flowering to 59.7% during flowering [59]. Postharvest processing of French samples did not significantly affect the oil composition, which was consistently rich in geraniol, nerol, citronellol, and geranial [57]. Hydrodistillation vs. steam distillation of Lemon catnip influenced oil composition; hydrodistillation yielded higher geranial and neral levels than steam distillation [51].
In Germany, catnip oils contained predominantly stereoisomeric nepetalactones (especially 4aα,7α,7aα at 77.7%) along with trans-caryophyllene and caryophyllene oxide, while the Lemon catnip featured nerol, citronellol, and geraniol [27]. Himalayan catnip introduced to tropical plains showed an oil dominated by 4aα,7α,7aα-nepetalactone (84%) and minor sesquiterpenes [35]. Iranian oils frequently include 4aα,7α,7aβ-nepetalactone as the main component [37,41,43], while Crimean samples are composed of nepetalactone, citronellol, geranial, geraniol, and caryophyllene oxide [42]. Turkish wild catnip at flowering showed high levels of various nepetalactone isomers and thymol [53].
Iranian Lemon catnip leaves are rich in monoterpenes, such as geranial, nerol, citronellol, and geraniol, but lack detectable nepetalactone [54]. Korean wild leaves were rich in nepetalactones (88.8–93.3%), mainly 4aα,7α,7aα, and 7aβ,7α,7aβ [55]. Canadian flowering tops showed a similar dominance of nepetalactones (80.8%), followed by trans-caryophyllene [14]. Polish Lemon catnip plants contain high levels of geraniol, nerol, citronellol, geranial, and neral [22]. Iranian wild plants contain nepetalactones, 1,8-cineole, trans-caryophyllene, and citronellyl acetate [56]. Argentine catnip cv. Rio Primero had 57.3% nepetalactone, 19.35% caryophyllene oxide, and other sesquiterpenes [58]. Brazilian oils are rich in nepetalactone isomers [52], while Thai oils feature 4aα,7α,7aα and 4aα,7α,7aβ nepetalactones [31].
Bulgarian Lemon catnip produces citronellol, geraniol, and neral as major components [33], and Serbian actnip features nerol and geraniol as dominant components [26]. Indian essential oils contain high nepetalactone (69.78%) [34]. Lithuanian research using multiple extraction methods found geranyl and citronellyl acetate to be key volatile compounds influencing aroma [29]. Canadian cultivars CR3 and commercial varieties were dominated by 4aα,7α,7aβ and 4aα,7α,7aα nepetalactones, while CR9 featured primarily the 4aα,7α,7aα isomer [5]. Italian Lemon catnip oils contain mostly geraniol (46.9%) with minimal nepetalactone (4.4%) [39].
In summary, nepetalactones are monoterpene iridoids whose biosynthesis begins with geranyl pyrophosphate (GPP) and proceeds through geraniol, 8-hydroxygeraniol, and 8-oxogeranial to nepetalactol (open form), which is subsequently converted intonepetalactone in four stereoisomeric forms [61]. Despite advances in elucidating the metabolic pathway, the genes encoding the enzymes involved in nepetalactone biosynthesis remain unknown. A study focused on N. rtanjensis showed that the biosynthetic pathway of nepetalactones remains largely unknown [62]. However, gene expression plays a central role in regulating nepetalactone production, which is localized in glandular trichomes and strongly correlated with nepetalactone content and developmental stage.
It is evident that the enzymes responsible for converting geraniol into nepetalactones (geraniol 8-hydroxylase, 8-hydroxygeraniol oxidoreductase, and iridoid synthase) are inactive in lemon catnip. As a result, geraniol and its isomer, nerol (monoterpene alcohols), along with their corresponding aldehydes (geranial and neral) and the monoterpene alcohol citronellol, dominate in both the essential oil and the corresponding recovery oil from hydrolate.
Finally, a distinct chemotype was identified among the 16 samples, characterized by a high caryophyllene oxide content ranging from 42.1% to 66.0%. Essential oils from 22 Nepeta species growing in Turkey revealed that seven of them (N. betonicifolia, N. cilicia, N. fissa, N. nuda ssp. glandulifera, N. concolor, N. conferta, and N. isaurica) contained caryophyllene oxide as the main constituent, with concentrations ranging from 15.5% to 39.2% [63]. This suggests the potential occurrence of interspecies hybridization, a phenomenon already documented in other genera.

4.2. Essential Oil Content in Nepeta cataria

The essential oil content in lemon catnip in this study was 0.33–0.34%, calculated on a dry matter. According to the available literature (Table 3), the essential oil content in catnip and lemon catnip ranges from 0.02% to 1.70%, depending on the genotype (i.e., population and cultivars) [5,8,18,19,23,25,27,36,38,57,60], agronomic practices such as fertilization or application of plant hormones (salicylic acid) [19,32,47], climatic conditions, as well as the time of harvest [19,36,38,40], and the plant’s developmental stage [44,48,49,50,59]. Studies have shown that essential oil accumulation increases from the vegetative phase, peaks at full flowering, and decreases toward the end of flowering [23]. Additionally, fresh plant material contains 3.3 times more essential oil on a dry basis [23]. Moreover, different plant parts (leaves, stems, and flowers) show significant variations in both essential oil content and composition [44]. The method used to obtain essential oils also significantly influences the yield. For example, steam distillation provides a much higher essential oil yield than hydrodistillation (1.5% and 0.5%, respectively) [51], whereas solvent extraction results in a significantly higher resinoid yield [59]. Finally, a relative increase in nepetalactone content was observed with a prolonged distillation time [59]. In contrast, the hydrolate yield per distillation primarily depends on the volume of the Florentine vessel (20 L in our case).

4.3. Hydrolate and Its Recovery Oil from Nepeta cataria

The recovery oil, obtained as a byproduct from hydrolate, represents an underexplored and promising source of bioactive volatiles. Its compositional similarity to esssential oils, particularly its high content of geraniol, nerol, citronellol, and geranial, confirms its potential for economic valorization. Traditionally discarded or underutilized, such hydrolate-derived fractions can be repurposed into novel bioproducts suitable for applications in the fragrance, cosmetics, and natural preservation sectors [64].
Few scientific papers have focused on catnip or lemon catnip hydrolates. A review of the literature identified only two studies that investigated their biological activity, while their chemical composition remains largely undefined. One study found that the hydrolate produced by hydrodistillation of catnip showed no significant in vitro repellent activity against bedbugs and is unlikely to be effective as a pest control agent due to its low concentration of active compounds [8]. Additionally, Moderate inhibitory effects of lemon catmint hydrolate were observed against B. cereus, E. faecalis, and S. aureus, along with a significant decrease in alfalfa seed germination. Therefore, it is not recommended as a medium for the production of alfalfa microsprouts, despite its promising flavoring properties [30]. In contrast, an antiviral assay demonstrated that catnip hydrolate significantly reduced the in vitro load of the Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome Virus (PRRSV) [65]. Moreover, hydrolate exhibited antiviral effects at both the pre- and post-entry stages of infection. These findings suggest that catnip hydrolate may have therapeutic potential for the prevention and treatment of PRRSV infections.
This aligns with the principles of the circular economy and adds significant value to the essential oil production chain, especially when seasonal or climatic fluctuations impact essential oil yield. Additional research should focus on examining the biological potential of hydrolatess for industrial applications, especially now that their chemical composition is being considered. For example, nerol is a potent antimicrobial agent [66,67] and a fragrance compound [68], similar to geraniol [69,70]. Based on its chemical composition, lemon catnip hydrolate shows strong potential for use in the food industry, particularly as a flavoring agent in drinks, beverages, and confectionery products. It may also be useful for food preservation and as an effective sanitizing solution for washing fresh-cut fruits and vegetables [64].

5. Conclusions

This study analyzed the volatile profiles of lemon catnip essential oils and recovery oils from hydrolate during three successive seasons, identifying nerol and geraniol as the dominant compounds. Higher temperatures during the vegetation period increased geraniol, geranial, and neral, especially in recovery oils, whereas cooler conditions and greater precipitation favored nerol and linalool. PCA confirmed clear chemical differences between the essential and recovery oils and highlighted the strong influence of environmental factors on the volatile composition.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, M.A. and L.P.; methodology, M.R.; software, B.L. and L.P.; validation, M.R.; formal analysis, M.C. and J.S.J.; investigation, M.A., M.R., M.C. and J.S.J.; resources, M.A.; data curation, B.L. and L.P.; writing—original draft preparation, M.A., B.L. and L.P.; writing—review and editing, M.A., B.L. and L.P.; visualization, M.P., B.L. and L.P.; supervision, M.A. and M.P.; project administration, M.A.; funding acquisition, B.L. and M.P. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia, Grant Numbers: 451-03-136/2025-03/200134 (B.L.), 451-03-136/2025-03/200051 (L.P.), 451-03-137/2025-03/200125 (M.R.), 451-03-136/2025-03/200026 (M.C.; J.S.J.), 451-03-136/2025-03/200017 (M.P.), and 451-03-136/2025-03/200032 (M.A.).

Data Availability Statement

Data is contained within the article.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Abbreviations

The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:
EOEssential oil
RORecovery oil
BUNSBotanical Collections at the University of Novi Sad
RIRetention indices
RtRetention times
ndNot detected
trTrace
KTRegression coefficients for temperature
KPRegression coefficients for precipitation

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Horticulturae 11 00862 g001
Figure 1. Lemon catnip plant: (a) upper part of the plant; (b) middle part of the plant in the full flowering stage; (c) seedlings.
Figure 1. Lemon catnip plant: (a) upper part of the plant; (b) middle part of the plant in the full flowering stage; (c) seedlings.
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Figure 2. Weather conditions during three successive growing seasons of lemon catnip – total monthly precipitation is shown using red bars, while average daily air temperature is indicated by blue lines: (a) 1st growing season (2019/2020), (b) 2nd growing season (2020/2021), and (c) 3rd growing season (2021/2022).
Figure 2. Weather conditions during three successive growing seasons of lemon catnip – total monthly precipitation is shown using red bars, while average daily air temperature is indicated by blue lines: (a) 1st growing season (2019/2020), (b) 2nd growing season (2020/2021), and (c) 3rd growing season (2021/2022).
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Figure 3. Scatter plot of samples on a two-dimensional plane. Volatile compound identification numbers are listed in Table 1.
Figure 3. Scatter plot of samples on a two-dimensional plane. Volatile compound identification numbers are listed in Table 1.
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Figure 4. Cluster analysis of the observed samples: essential oil (EO) and recovery oil (RO) from hydrolate.
Figure 4. Cluster analysis of the observed samples: essential oil (EO) and recovery oil (RO) from hydrolate.
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Figure 5. Unrooted cluster tree for different catnip and Lemon catnip samples from the literature (samples are numbered according to Table 3).
Figure 5. Unrooted cluster tree for different catnip and Lemon catnip samples from the literature (samples are numbered according to Table 3).
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Table 1. Volatile profiles of Nepeta cataria var. citriodora essential oil (EO) and recovery oil (RO) from hydrolate during a three-year period.
Table 1. Volatile profiles of Nepeta cataria var. citriodora essential oil (EO) and recovery oil (RO) from hydrolate during a three-year period.
No.Volatile CompoundRtRI ExpRI LitEORO
202020212022202020212022
16-methyl-5-Hepten-2-one7.275982981n.d.n.d.n.d.2.1 ± 0.11.5 ± 0.10.3 ± 0.0
21,8-Cineole8.78510301026n.d.0.2 ± 0.00.1 ± 0.0n.d.n.d.n.d.
3cis-Linalool oxide (furanoid)10.35110691067n.d.n.d.n.d.0.1 ± 0.00.1 ± 0.00.1 ± 0.0
4Linalool11.413109710950.3 ± 0.01.2 ± 0.00.1 ± 0.00.6 ± 0.11.9 ± 0.10.3 ± 0.0
5α-Pinene oxide11.57411051099n.d.0.1 ± 0.00.3 ± 0.00.1 ± 0.0n.d.n.d.
6cis-Rose oxide11.885110811060.1 ± 0.00.1 ± 0.00.1 ± 0.00.1 ± 0.00.1 ± 0.00.1 ± 0.0
7trans-Rose oxide12.55211271122n.d.0.1 ± 0.00.1 ± 0.00.1 ± 0.0trtr
8Camphor13.24111441141n.d.n.d.n.d.n.d.0.2 ± 0.0tr
9β-Pinene oxide13.50211441153n.d.n.d.n.d.0.6 ± 0.1n.d.n.d.
10trans-Chrysanthemal13.510114411540.6 ± 0.00.2 ± 0.00.6 ± 0.1n.d.0.5 ± 0.00.5 ± 0.1
11iso-Isopulegol13.624114711551.7 ± 0.1n.d.n.d.0.3 ± 0.0n.d.n.d.
12Citronellal13.64411521148n.d.0.5 ± 0.01.6 ± 0.0n.d.n.d.n.d.
13Nerol oxide13.67311531154n.d.0.2 ± 0.00.3 ± 0.00.1 ± 0.00.1 ± 0.00.2 ± 0.0
14Borneol14.17911651165n.d.0.3 ± 0.0trn.d.0.7 ± 0.0n.d.
15Lavandulol14.54211681165n.d.n.d.n.d.0.8 ± 0.1n.d.n.d.
16Terpinen-4-ol14.69611771174n.d.0.2 ± 0.0n.d.n.d.0.6±n.d.
17α-Terpineol15.298118511860.1 ± 0.00.1 ± 0.00.1 ± 0.00.4 ± 0.00.2 ± 0.00.3 ± 0.0
182,6,6-trimethyl-2-Cyclohexene-1-methanol15.98012001187n.d.n.d.n.d.0.7 ± 0.1n.d.n.d.
19α-Cyclogeraniol15.987120111840.3 ± 0.0n.d.n.d.n.d.n.d.n.d.
20Nerol17.0671223122747.5 ± 1.452.3 ± 1.049.1 ± 0.643.5 ± 0.954.3 ± 0.347.8 ± 1.0
21Neral17.560123512356.7 ± 0.36.0 ± 0.25.9 ± 0.28.8 ± 0.33.8 ± 0.17.8 ± 0.0
22Geraniol18.2311251124927.9 ± 0.125.2 ± 0.227.7 ± 0.132.3 ± 0.129.4 ± 0.132.6 ± 0.1
23Geranial18.889126512648.9 ± 0.27.0 ± 0.37.9 ± 0.28.4 ± 0.12.9 ± 0.07.2 ± 0.1
24Citronellylformate19.11112761271n.d.0.4 ± 0.0n.d.n.d.n.d.n.d.
25Nerylformate19.36012811280n.d.0.5 ± 0.00.1 ± 0.0n.d.n.d.n.d.
26Thymol19.81212921289n.d.n.d.0.1 ± 0.0n.d.n.d.n.d.
27Geranyl formate20.29513021298n.d.0.2 ± 0.0trn.d.n.d.n.d.
28Neryl acetate23.07013641359n.d.0.1 ± 0.00.1 ± 0.0n.d.n.d.n.d.
29α-Copaene23.49613731374n.d.n.d.0.1 ± 0.0n.d.n.d.n.d.
30Geranyl acetate23.88113821379n.d.0.1 ± 0.00.1 ± 0.0n.d.n.d.n.d.
31trans-Caryophyllene25.379141314172.7 ± 0.11.2 ± 0.02.4 ± 0.0n.d.n.d.n.d.
32α-Humulene26.813144714490.2 ± 0.00.1 ± 0.00.1 ± 0.0n.d.n.d.n.d.
33γ-Curcumene26.95714511454n.d.n.d.0.1 ± 0.0n.d.n.d.n.d.
34β-Selinene27.95714791481n.d.tr0.1 ± 0.0n.d.n.d.n.d.
35trans-β-Farnesene28.209148614890.2 ± 0.0n.d.n.d.n.d.n.d.n.d.
36Caryophyllene oxide32.139157715820.8 ± 0.01.4 ± 0.00.9 ± 0.0n.d.n.d.n.d.
37Humulene epoxide II33.17316081608n.d.0.1 ± 0.0n.d.n.d.n.d.n.d.
38Rosifoliol33.19416091600n.d.n.d.0.1 ± 0.0n.d.n.d.n.d.
3914-hydroxy-9-epi-(E)-Caryophyllene35.62916721668n.d.0.1 ± 0.00.1 ± 0.0n.d.n.d.n.d.
Rt—retention times; RI exp—retention indices experimentally obtained from n-alkane mixture (C8-C24) analyzed under the same chromatographic conditions; RI lit—retention indices from literature libraries (Adams ver. 4 and NIST RI ver. 2017); n.d.—not detected; tr, trace (less than 0.05%); EO, essential oil; RO, recovery oil from hydrolate.
Table 2. Range of volatile compounds of Lemon catnip essential oil (EO) and recovery oil from hydrolate (RO), along with regression coefficients for temperature (Kt) and precipitation (Kp).
Table 2. Range of volatile compounds of Lemon catnip essential oil (EO) and recovery oil from hydrolate (RO), along with regression coefficients for temperature (Kt) and precipitation (Kp).
No.Volatile CompoundRange in EOEO-KTEO-KPRange in RORO-KTRO-KP
16-methyl-5-Hepten-2-onend–0.10.000.000.3–2.1−2.890.33
21,8-Cineolend–0.2−0.040.02nd0.000.00
3cis-Linalool oxide (furanoid)nd0.000.000.10.000.00
4Linalool0.1–1.2−1.490.240.3–1.9−2.170.35
5α-Pinene oxide-nd–0.30.48−0.05nd–0.1−0.080.00
6cis-Rose oxide0.10.000.000.10.000.00
7trans-Rose oxidend–0.10.080.00nd–0.1−0.080.00
8Camphornd0.000.00tr–0.2−0.240.04
9β-Pinene oxidend0.000.00nd–0.6−0.480.02
10trans-Chrysanthemal0.2–0.60.48−0.08nd–0.50.40−0.02
11iso-Isopulegolnd–1.7−1.360.07nd−0.240.01
12Citronellalnd–1.62.61−0.30nd0.000.00
13Nerol oxidend–0.30.36−0.030.1–0.20.20−0.03
14Borneolnd–0.3−0.360.06nd–0.7−0.840.15
15Lavandulolnd0.000.00nd–0.8−0.640.03
16Terpinen-4-olnd–0.2−0.240.04nd–0.6−0.720.13
17α-Terpineol0.10.000.000.2–0.40.04−0.02
182,6,6-trimethyl-2-Cyclohexene-1-methanolnd0,000.00nd–0.7−0.560.03
19α-Cyclogeraniolnd–0.3−0.240.01nd0.000.00
20Nerol47.5–52.3−2.580.6143.5–54.3−4.411.20
21Neral5.9–6.7−0.760.053.8–8.84.03−0.80
22Geraniol25.2–27.92.86−0.5229.4–32.64.10−0.69
23Geranial7.0–8.90.29−0.152.9–8.44.23−0.86
24Citronellylformatend-0.4−0.480.08nd0.000.00
25Nerylformatend–0.5−0.400.08nd0.000.00
26Thymolnd–0.10.20−0.03nd0.000.00
27Geranyl formatend–0.2−0.240.04nd0.000.00
28Neryl acetatend–0.10.080.00nd0.000.00
29α-Copaenend–0.10.20−0.03nd0.000.00
30Geranyl acetatend–0.10.080.00nd0.000.00
31trans-Caryophyllene1.2–2.71.21−0.24nd0.000.00
32α-Humulene0.1–0.2−0.080.00nd0.000.00
33trans-β-Farnesenend–0.2−0.160.01nd0.000.00
34γ-Curcumenend–0.10.20−0.03nd0.000.00
35β-Selinenend–0.10.20−0.03nd0.000.00
36Caryophyllene oxide0.8–1.4−0.520.10nd0.000.00
37Humulene epoxide IInd–0.1−0.120.02nd0.000.00
38Rosifoliolnd–0.10.20−0.03nd0.000.00
3914-hydroxy-9-epi-(E)-Caryophyllenend–0.10.080.00nd0.000.00
RI—retention indices; Rt—retention times; nd—not detected; tr—trace (less than 0.05%); EO—essential oil, RO—Recovery oil from hydrolate; KT—regression coefficients for temperature; KP—regression coefficients for precipitation.
Table 3. Review of the essential oil composition of catnip and lemon catnip based on the literature (results presented from the newest to the oldest).
Table 3. Review of the essential oil composition of catnip and lemon catnip based on the literature (results presented from the newest to the oldest).
ReferenceNo.Source of VariationNepetalactoneGeraniolCirtonellolCaryophyllene OxideNeroltrans-CaryophylleneGeranialNeralTotal *Essential Oil Content
TSYear1nd27.9nd0.847.52.78.96.794.50.33
2nd25.9nd1.452.31.27.06.093.80.34
3nd25.7nd0.949.12.47.95.991.90.34
[25]Population489.2ndnd1.3nd4.3ndnd94.70.22
589.9ndnd1.9nd2.8ndnd94.50.26
690.8ndnd1.0nd2.4ndnd94.10.31
789.3ndnd1.0nd3.9ndnd94.10.36
893.4ndnd0.7nd2.3ndnd96.30.34
990.5ndnd1.2nd2.9ndnd94.60.19
1092.9ndnd0.5nd2.6ndnd96.00.29
1180.5ndnd1.0nd2.9ndnd84.40.20
1291.1ndnd0.8nd2.6ndnd94.50.31
1382.1ndnd0.7nd2.9ndnd85.70.20
1492.4ndnd0.7nd2.5ndnd95.50.18
1590.1ndnd1.1nd3.2ndnd94.30.15
1691.4ndnd1.2nd2.9ndnd95.50.26
1775.3ndnd1.7nd2.7ndnd79.60.26
1892.9ndnd0.7nd3.0ndnd96.50.27
1984.3ndnd2.1nd2.8ndnd89.10.18
2090.5ndnd0.7nd2.8ndnd94.00.23
2185.7ndnd1.2nd3.6ndnd90.40.15
2285.6ndnd0.9nd4.1ndnd90.50.31
2390.0ndnd0.9nd3.5ndnd94.40.25
2490.5ndnd1.0nd3.2ndnd94.60.26
2591.6ndnd1.0nd3.2ndnd95.80.20
2690.7ndnd1.0nd3.7ndnd95.30.31
2792.7ndnd0.7nd2.7ndnd96.00.51
2894.5ndnd0.6nd2.3ndnd97.40.31
2993.4ndnd0.9nd2.7ndnd97.00.36
3094.0ndnd0.6nd1.8ndnd96.40.36
3189.0ndnd2.1nd3.3ndnd94.40.26
3289.0ndnd1.1nd3.4ndnd93.50.20
3389.0ndnd1.1nd3.4ndnd93.50.31
[31]-3496.8ndnd1.3nd1.9ndnd100.00.41
[8]Cultivars & growing locations 3592.6nd0.40.9nd5.7ndnd99.6-
3627.910.720.819.3nd3.04.52.989.1-
370.89.532.428.6nd1.83.11.777.9-
383.425.828.119.7nd4.62.91.886.3-
3921.79.523.223.6nd1.83.11.884.7-
4011.026.635.69.9nd3.92.11.490.5-
411.40.93.346.0nd19.10.2nd70.9-
422.5nd3.248.9nd25.21.6nd81.4-
[32]Fertilization4376.6ndnd2.0nd4.0ndnd82.50.52
4479.3ndnd2.6nd4.1ndnd86.00.57
[33]-45nd15.926.31.39.63.011.611.579.10.07
[26]-46nd24.90.10.638.50.714.611.090.40.24
[34] 4780.1ndnd0.1nd0.5ndnd80.70.30
[35]-4886.9ndnd1.7nd0.6ndnd89.2-
[36]Cultivars & harvesting time497.932.336.911.8nd2.82.73.597.90.22
50ndnd0.846.4nd41.1ndnd88.30.02
51nd2.45.552.8nd19.6ndtr80.30.04
52nd11.716.948.4nd5.40.9tr83.30.04
53nd8.213.742.1nd3.20.51.168.80.02
54ndndtr50.9nd36.2ndnd87.10.06
551.820.536.818.8nd1.88.36.894.80.15
56trndnd35.5nd54.7ndnd90.20.08
57trtrtr58.7nd31.6ndnd90.30.03
58nd3.515.964.2ndtr3.62.489.60.02
59nd2.411.566.0ndtr1.91.182.90.03
601.4nd0.643.6nd43.4ndnd89.00.05
6127.924.330.73.6nd3.24.44.398.40.98
621.9ndnd36.9nd50.1trnd88.90.04
63nd10.917.542.4nd15.64.63.894.80.05
64nd22.832.624.9nd2.75.84.893.60.08
65nd20.234.230.2nd2.05.13.495.10.16
66ndndtr46.3nd42.1ndnd88.40.14
[37]-6762.5ndnd2.5nd0.4ndnd65.50.16
[29]-6887.60.41.12.00.83.10.70.496.0-
[23]Cultivars696.123.311.41.422.4nd9.47.481.30.52
7010.624.412.31.122.0nd9.67.787.80.48
[5]Cultivars7196.8ndnd1.3nd1.6ndnd99.7-
7287.0ndnd5.8nd4.7ndnd97.5-
7387.0ndnd1.6nd8.1ndnd96.6-
[38]Cultivars & harvesting time7456.410.9nd2.0nd2.6ndnd71.90.11
7555.512.51.00.5nd1.7ndnd71.20.12
76nd0.116.12.523.3ndnd9.151.20.24
[39]-774.48.36.02.146.96.2ndnd74.0-
[40]Harvesting time7822.613.6nd1.20.72.517.613.571.60.25
7924.714.9nd1.31.53.022.114.882.20.19
[41]-8297.7ndnd0.2ndndnd0.198.0-
[42]-8133.88.0nd6.2nd0.510.5nd58.90.11
[43]-8086.2ndnd0.1nd2.1ndnd88.40.90
[44]Developmental stages & plant part8390.9ndnd1.0ndndndnd91.90.29
[19]Cultivars, water stress, harvesting time, cultivation practice (salicylic acid foliar application)8442.535.14.30.8nd1.66.04.995.20.11
8538.036.07.01.2nd2.05.54.293.80.10
8636.036.97.20.9nd2.05.03.891.70.10
8738.839.44.00.8nd1.86.06.096.80.12
8835.137.811.80.4nd1.87.14.097.90.11
8926.440.211.90.7nd2.75.65.392.80.11
9035.537.19.61.1nd2.06.65.397.30.25
9134.738.710.01.1nd2.14.03.794.30.24
9234.138.99.20.7nd2.75.44.395.40.23
9336.836.98.30.9nd2.16.55.597.10.27
9432.539.99.01.6nd2.14.44.694.00.26
9531.840.07.81.0nd2.44.24.591.80.25
96nd48.914.70.7nd2.38.57.282.30.24
97nd50.917.40.4nd2.39.47.087.30.23
98nd53.018.50.1nd2.29.76.990.30.22
99nd49.917.40.5nd2.89.45.885.70.26
100nd55.014.00.4nd2.87.05.084.10.25
101nd55.020.60.3nd2.67.05.290.60.24
102nd50.818.30.7nd2.67.75.885.90.37
103nd50.917.10.1nd2.46.46.082.90.34
104nd52.619.00.4nd2.85.56.086.10.33
105nd51.817.60.5nd2.67.97.988.20.38
106nd53.917.10.4nd3.07.36.388.00.38
107nd53.816.90.5nd2.97.95.287.20.37
[45]Radiation108nd.29.9ndnd15.71.315.312.074.30.20
109nd31.1ndnd13.81.117.513.677.10.20
110nd30.6ndnd15.71.114.811.573.70.22
111nd32.1ndnd15.01.017.413.578.90.18
[46]Drought stress112nd27.714.4nd19.01.115.912.290.30.14
113nd28.713.8nd18.51.216.012.390.50.13
114nd28.514.9nd19.81.015.011.690.80.15
[47]Nitrogen stress115nd30.511.2nd14.21.118.914.690.40.15
116nd29.913.0nd17.01.017.413.291.50.18
117nd27.414.0nd18.01.315.612.088.20.18
[48,49,50]Developmental stages11885.1ndnd0.5nd1.1ndnd86.70.30
11989.1ndnd0.2nd2.7ndnd92.00.50
12086.2ndnd0.1nd2.1ndnd88.50.90
12189.0ndndndnd1.1ndnd90.10.40
[51]Distillation methods & regimes122nd32.825.4ndndnd22.315.495.90.50
123nd32.925.20.1nd0.120.914.593.7
124nd29.739.33.1nd0.39.37.589.31.50
125nd27.837.03.0nd0.19.48.085.2
[52]-12678.8ndndndndndndnd78.80.02
[53]-12778.9ndnd0.4nd0.9ndnd80.20.74
[54]-128nd4.39.0nd32.2nd52.0nd97.5-
[27]Cultivars12978.5ndnd1.8nd7.60.10.188.1-
13025.419.6nd2.331.13.74.93.790.7-
[55]-13190.9ndndndnd1.1ndnd92.0-
[14]-13280.8ndnd1.0nd10.8ndnd92.6-
[22]-133nd23.514.02.524.41.88.26.681.00.71
[56]-13443.3ndnd3.6nd5.7ndnd52.60.94
[57]Cultivars135nd27.615.1nd28.23.25.13.182.40.86
136nd26.016.7nd30.54.95.13.386.50.78
137nd23.512.00.720.03.411.17.878.40.70
138nd26.016.50.130.24.85.03.285.71.13
139nd27.514.40.930.33.38.25.890.31.18
140nd28.113.71.429.42.78.96.190.21.40
141nd25.114.61.730.12.69.46.790.21.40
142nd29.813.10.228.7nd9.77.188.60.42
143nd28.611.80.426.10.19.06.582.3-
144nd31.011.40.527.9nd9.36.886.9-
145nd28.011.60.626.60.57.75.780.71.10
146nd27.213.00.326.71.36.70.475.41.20
147nd30.412.81.430.60.46.44.886.81.70
148nd30.812.50.428.2nd4.93.480.31.10
149nd30.312.31.330.70.26.34.685.6-
150nd26.613.90.930.03.17.55.787.8-
151nd30.113.40.229.32.29.97.192.2-
[18]Populations 15284.0ndndndndndndnd84.00.30
[58]-15357.3ndnd19.4nd8.1ndnd84.80.93
[59]Developmental stages15412.4ndnd14.3nd24.6ndnd51.3-
15559.7ndnd18.2nd6.2ndnd84.1-
[60]Cultivars15677.6ndndndnd2.8ndnd80.40.20
1579.413.748.3ndnd8.05.64.989.90.60
Average 37.915.98.37.16.55.04.73.3-0.36
* Samples in which the eight selected compounds accounted for less than 50% were excluded from this review; nd—not detected.
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Aćimović, M.; Lončar, B.; Rat, M.; Cvetković, M.; Stanković Jeremić, J.; Pezo, M.; Pezo, L. Seasonal Variation in Volatile Profiles of Lemon Catnip (Nepeta cataria var. citriodora) Essential Oil and Hydrolate. Horticulturae 2025, 11, 862. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae11070862

AMA Style

Aćimović M, Lončar B, Rat M, Cvetković M, Stanković Jeremić J, Pezo M, Pezo L. Seasonal Variation in Volatile Profiles of Lemon Catnip (Nepeta cataria var. citriodora) Essential Oil and Hydrolate. Horticulturae. 2025; 11(7):862. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae11070862

Chicago/Turabian Style

Aćimović, Milica, Biljana Lončar, Milica Rat, Mirjana Cvetković, Jovana Stanković Jeremić, Milada Pezo, and Lato Pezo. 2025. "Seasonal Variation in Volatile Profiles of Lemon Catnip (Nepeta cataria var. citriodora) Essential Oil and Hydrolate" Horticulturae 11, no. 7: 862. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae11070862

APA Style

Aćimović, M., Lončar, B., Rat, M., Cvetković, M., Stanković Jeremić, J., Pezo, M., & Pezo, L. (2025). Seasonal Variation in Volatile Profiles of Lemon Catnip (Nepeta cataria var. citriodora) Essential Oil and Hydrolate. Horticulturae, 11(7), 862. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae11070862

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