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Article

Gibberellin Treatment Accelerates Starch Decomposition and Seed Germination in Sticky Nightshade (Solanum sisymbriifolium Lam.)

by
Haobo Xu
1,
Danni Mo
1,
Xingyu Zhang
1,
Fangman Li
1,
Jinbao Tao
1,
Pingfei Ge
1,
Yang Yang
1,
Ziyuan Wang
1 and
Yuyang Zhang
1,2,3,4,*
1
National Key Laboratory for Germplasm Innovation and Utilization of Horticultural Crops, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
2
Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, Wuhan 430070, China
3
Shenzhen Institute of Nutrition and Health, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
4
Shenzhen Branch, Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, Genome Analysis Laboratory of the Ministry of Agriculture, Agricultural Genomics Institute at Shenzhen, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shenzhen 518000, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Horticulturae 2024, 10(12), 1342; https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae10121342
Submission received: 30 October 2024 / Revised: 10 December 2024 / Accepted: 11 December 2024 / Published: 14 December 2024
(This article belongs to the Section Propagation and Seeds)
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Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Sticky nightshade (Solanum sisymbriifolium Lam.) is a spiny species with a variety of disease resistance characteristics found worldwide within the Solanum genus. However, its low germination rate and long germination period pose obstacles to the effective use of this species. Here, we treated Sticky nightshade with different concentrations of gibberellin (GA3) and observed paraffin sections of Sticky nightshade seeds treated with different GA3 concentrations over different time ranges. The results showed that a 400 mg/L exogenous GA3 concentration at room temperature could improve the germination rate of Sticky nightshade the most effectively. Exogenous GA3 treatment can significantly accelerate the hydrolysis of starch granules and increase the germination rate of seeds. Subsequently, we also measured the MDA content of Sticky nightshade seeds treated with different GA3 concentrations over different time ranges. The result reveals that GA3 treatment can steadily decrease Sticky nightshade seeds’ MDA content during germination, indicating that exogenous GA3 treatment also reduces membrane peroxidation and maintains the stability of the plasma membrane. In this paper, we identified an optimal GA3-treated concentration of Sticky nightshade to improve seed germination at room temperature and explored the reason why the exogenous GA3 treatment of Sticky nightshade seed increased the germination rate.

1. Introduction

Seed development and germination are indispensable for plant propagation, fruit development, and crop yield and quality [1,2]. Seeds not only generate seedlings for the whole plant life cycle, but also synthesize phytohormones that regulate fruit development and ripening. At the same time, phytohormones play a crucial role in seed germination. Hormones like gibberellic acid (GA) and abscisic acid (ABA) plays pivotal roles in seed dormancy and germination, exhibiting an antagonistic relationship. In rice, embryo dormancy is often associated with a high ABA/GA ratio [3]. In the Arabidopsis mutant gal-3 lacking GA, the increased expression of ABA biosynthesis genes leads to ABA accumulation, whereas exogenous GA treatment can overcome the mutant’s dormancy and induce full germination in the mutant [4,5]. Additionally, ethylene acts as a catalyst, accelerating embryo emergence and antagonizing ABA to promote radicle protrusion and weaken the embryo cap [6,7]. Upon treating the seeds of GA-deficient mutants with ethylene, their germination capacity is restored [8]. Brassinosteroid (BR), which is prevalent in pollen and seeds throughout reproductive growth, plays a vital role in maintaining fertility under optimal growing conditions. Inhibiting the synthesis of BR leads to a marked reduction in the fertility of seeds [9].
Starch hydrolysis is a crucial step in providing energy for seed germination. Previous research results have indicated that GA induces the expression of α-amylase in the starchy endosperm of barley during the early germination stages [10]. Exogenous GA treatment can enhance the catalytic activity of α-amylase, which is one of the key enzymes involved in starch granule hydrolysis and is the sole enzyme initiating starch granule hydrolysis during seed germination [11,12]. In contrast, the insufficient catalytic activity of α-amylase may lead to lower soluble sugar content after starch hydrolysis, which fails to provide sufficient nutrients for the germination of plant seeds in a timely manner. This subsequently stimulates the activity of lipase and peroxidase [13], resulting in active lipid metabolism and the glyoxylic acid cycle converting lipids into sugars. This process in concert with several cellular activities, e.g., the mitochondrial electron transport chain, NADPH oxidase, and endoplasmic reticulum, generates reactive oxygen species (ROS), causing the lipid peroxidation of cell membranes, DNA damage, protein denaturation, carbohydrate oxidation, and pigment degradation. Regarding malondialdehyde (MDA) as a marker for lipid peroxidation [14], the lower the MDA level, the less severe the degree of membrane damage. Exogenous GA might enhance starch hydrolysis by promoting the catalytic activity of α-amylase to supplement metabolically consumed soluble sugars; thus, the increased sugars levels would help to inhibit the lipid breakdown to mitigate oxidative damage in the early germination of zanthoxylum seeds [15].
Moreover, an excessively thick testa can impede the absorption of air and water, thereby maintaining the seed in a dormant state [16]. This barrier restricts the essential processes required for germination. For example, the mechanical constraint in the endocarp is an important cause of seed dormancy in Sinojackia xylocarpa Hu (Styracaceae) [16]. In wild peas, the dormancy of seeds is attributed to their thick and hard seed coat, which impedes water penetration for an extended period. In contrast, the seed coats of domesticated varieties are much thinner and allow water to permeate easily [17]. In addition, the endosperm imposes significant mechanical constraints on germination, particularly around the radicle [16]. Environmental conditions like temperature could also affect seed dominancy and germination [18].
Sticky nightshade (Solanum sisymbriifolium Lam.), which is a spiny species found worldwide in the Solanum genus, offers various medicinal and nutritional benefits along with a wide range of disease resistance [19]. The propagation and utilization of the Sticky nightshade would provide beneficial germplasm resources for vegetable breeding [20,21]. Previous study found that the seeds of Sticky nightshade under normal conditions exhibited a longer germination period and a lower germination rate at 37 °C. Notably, it was found that the treatment of the seeds with low temperatures and gibberellin treatment could effectively overcome the dormancy observed in Sticky nightshade seeds [22]. But the physiological mechanisms underlying hormone treatment such as gibberellin levels and various physiological indicators were still unclear. At the same time, whether there are other factors related to seed germination that inhibit the germination of Sticky nightshade remains unclear. Therefore, this study aims to explore the optimal gibberellin treatment concentration for the germination of Sticky nightshade seeds at room temperature and investigate factors that hinder the germination of Sticky nightshade.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Plant Materials and Growth Conditions

The Sticky nightshade used in this study was collected from Yunnan Province, China. Seeds of Sticky nightshade were collected in September 2023. Eggplant HongBao 9403, a commercial cultivated Solanum species close to Sticky nightshade, was selected as a control. HongBao 9403 is an early-maturing F1 hybrid variety acquired from a regular market, with vigorous seed germination, plant growth, and bulb-shaped, purple-red fruits. Both seeds were placed in growth chamber at 24 °C during the germination experiment.

2.2. Characterization of Seed Germination

Based on the preliminary germination experiment, six treatment groups were established, each with three replicates of 30 seeds. All groups underwent a uniform seed-soaking treatment for 30 min. These treatment groups comprised a control Sticky nightshade with 0 mg/L GA3, four experimental Sticky nightshade groups with serial concentrations of GA3 (200 mg/L, 400 mg/L, 600 mg/L, and 800 mg/L), and a control HongBao 9403 group with 0 mg/L GA3. After GA3 soaking, seeds were rinsed twice with distilled water to eliminate surface GA3. Seeds were then placed on Petri dishes with three layers of moistened filter paper and incubated in a 24 °C growth chamber. The daily observations recorded the germinated seeds, maintaining filter paper moisture. Germination potential was assessed at 3 d, and germination rate at 10 d.
Germination rate (GR) (%) = (Number of germinated seeds at 10 d/Total number of seeds tested) × 100;
Germination period (GPE) (d): Days to highest germination
Germination potential (GPO) (%) = (Number of germinated seeds at 3 d/Total number of seeds tested) × 100;
Germination index (GI) = Σ(Gt/Dt);
Dt: the days of the total germination period; Gt: the number of newly germinated seeds per day at the corresponding time. The index measurement methods refer to Guo’s research [23].

2.3. Quantification of GA3 Content in Seeds

The content of the plant hormone GA3 was determined using a K2025 high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) system. Three groups were set up: Sticky nightshade treated without GA3, Sticky nightshade treated with 400 mg/L GA3, and HongBao 9403 without GA3. Germination treatment was performed for each group according to the method described in Section 2.2. Fresh samples of 0.1 g were taken from seeds at 2 h, 2 d, and 4 d for each group. These samples were added to liquid nitrogen and ground into a powder using a mortar and pestle, then placed in 2 mL centrifuge tubes. In total, 1 mL of ethyl acetate was added to each tube, vortexed for 10 min, and then centrifuged at 12,000 rpm at 4 °C for 20 min. The supernatant was transferred to a new 2 mL centrifuge tube and dried using a nitrogen blower until a light yellow substance appeared at the bottom of the tube. Two hundred microliters of 60% methanol solution was added to the dried product to redissolve it, vortexed for 15 min to ensure complete dissolution, and then centrifuged again at 12,000 rpm at 4 °C for 10 min. The supernatant was aspirated into a 1.5 mL centrifuge tube. Using a disposable sterile syringe, the supernatant was passed through a 0.22 µm organic filter membrane, and the filtrate was transferred to an insert tube, which was then fixed into an injection vial. If not immediately tested, all samples were stored in a 4 °C refrigerator for further use [24].

2.4. Paraffin Section of Seeds

In the earlier study, it was discovered that the germination rate of Sticky nightshade was relatively low [22]. Consequently, to investigate the reasons behind this low germination rate, paraffin sectioning was performed to investigate the difference of the internal structure of Sticky nightshade and the cultivated eggplant HongBao 9403 before and after GA3 treatment. Based on the seed germination rate under different concentration of GA3 treatment (Section 2.2), 400 mg/L GA3 treatment was selected for the paraffin sectioning of seeds.
Since the cultivated eggplant HongBao 9403 exhibited vigorous seed germination, its seeds were not subjected to GA3 treatment. Thus, three treatment groups were established: Sticky nightshade with 0 mg/L GA3, Sticky nightshade with 400 mg/L GA3, and HongBao 9403 with 0 mg/L GA3. The seeds were collected from ripe fruits and air-dried. Seed germination for each group was carried out according to the method described in Section 2.2. Seeds were fixed by FAA fixative at 2 h and 4 d for each group [25]. Paraffin sections (cross-sections) were prepared from using a paraffin embedding center (Junjie JJ-12J, Wuhan, China) and a pathological microtome (Junjie JB-P5, Wuhan, China). The seed structure was observed under an upright clinical microscope (Nikon Eclipse ci, Beijing, China, randomly selecting 100× fields of view from each section and taking photos. Using the Image-Pro Plus 6.0 software, appropriate fields of view based on the scale were selected, and the seed coat thickness (µm) was measured by calculating the average value of five locations on each section.

2.5. Measurement of Malondialdehyde (MDA) Content in Seeds

Three treatment groups were established: Sticky nightshade with 0 mg/L GA3, Sticky nightshade with 400 mg/L GA3, and HongBao 9403 with 0 mg/L GA3. The seeds were subjected to germination treatment according to the method described in Section 2.2. MDA content in the seeds was measured at 2 h, 2 d, and 4 d after treatment, respectively, using a Solarbio MDA assay kit (Solarbio, Beijing China).

2.6. Statistical Analyses

Data collected from the experiment were statistically analyzed using Excel (2021). One-way ANOVA (Analysis of Variance) and Student’s t-test were performed using IBM-SPSS Statistical software (version 26.0). The starch granules area was calculated using ImageJ software (ImageJ 1). The thickness was measured at five locations in each section using Image-Pro Plus (version 6.0), and the average value (μm) was calculated.

3. Results

3.1. Gibberellic Acid Alleviates the Seed Germination Obstacles in Sticky Nightshade

In the germination assay of Sticky nightshade and HongBao 9403, it was found that the germination rate of Sticky nightshade seeds was significantly lower than that of HongBao 9403. On the third day, most of the HongBao 9403 seeds began to germinate, and on the fifth day the seed germination rate reached its highest, with a germination rate close to 100%. However, Sticky nightshade exhibited a relatively slow germination. The seed germination rate of Sticky nightshade increased significantly on the eighth day and reached the peak on the ninth day (40%) (Figure 1). This result indicated that Sticky nightshade seeds have a certain obstacle to germination compared with HongBao 9403 seeds. Therefore, Sticky nightshade was treated with GA3 in different concentrations, and the germination rate of GA3-treated Sticky nightshade seeds was higher than that of the untreated Sticky nightshade (0 mg/L GA3). When the concentration of GA3 reached 400 mg/L, the germination curve was very similar to that of HongBao 9403. The results also showed that the highest germination rate in the Sticky nightshade seeds was observed after treatment with GA3 at a concentration of 200 mg/L. At the same time, 400 mg/L GA3 can increase the Sticky nightshade germination rate dramatically from the fourth day in a similar manner to HongBao 9403 (Figure 1). This indicates 400 mg/L GA3 may effectively alleviate the seed germination obstacles in Sticky nightshade. However, it is intriguing to note that when treated with 400 mg/L GA3, the GA3 content in seeds of Sticky nightshade was significantly reduced at 2 h or 4 days after treatment (Figure S1).
The germination period, germination potential, and germination index (GI) of Sticky nightshade seeds were further calculated under different concentrations of GA3 treatment (Table 1). The GA3-treated Sticky nightshade seeds showed a significantly higher GI compared to the untreated control (SN-GA3 0 mg/L). Notably, the treatment with 400 mg/L of GA3 achieved the highest GI among all tested concentrations (Table 1), demonstrating that a GA3 concentration of 400 mg/L exhibits the best effect in enhancing the germination ability of Sticky nightshade seeds. Sticky nightshade seeds’ treatment with 400 mg/L GA3 during germination at 24 °C can effectively enhance GI, resulting in a shortened germination period. Thus, subsequent experiments will employ the concentration of 400 mg/L GA3.

3.2. Differences in Starch Granules of Seeds Between Sticky Nightshade and Cultivated Eggplant

In consistence with an earlier study, it was discovered that the germination rate of Sticky nightshade was relatively low [22]. Consequently, to investigate the reasons behind this low germination rate, paraffin sectioning was performed on the seeds of Sticky nightshade and the cultivated eggplant HongBao 9403.
The paraffin sectioning results showed that the amount of starch granules in Sticky nightshade is less than that in HongBao 9403 (Figure 2A,C). Starch granules in HongBao 9403 were visually quantified to be five times higher than in Sticky nightshade (Figure 2B). It is speculated that the low content of starch granules in Sticky nightshade is the major factor contributing to its low germination rate. The results also showed that the average testa thickness of Sticky nightshade can reach up to 328 μm, while the seed coat thickness of HongBao 9403 is only 168.91 μm (Figure 2D). Therefore, the excessive thickness of the testa, which makes it difficult for the embryo to break through the mechanical hindrance, may be another reason for the low germination rate of Sticky nightshade.

3.3. GA3 Treatment Accelerates the Decomposition of Starch Granules in Sticky Nightshade Seeds

In order to determine whether the starch granule content or the change in starch granules caused the low germination rate, paraffin sections of the seed structure were investigated. Through the paraffin sections of HongBao 9403 seeds at 2 hours after treatment (HAT) and 4 days after treatment (DAT), it was observed that the content of starch granules in seeds decreased significantly after 4 DAT (Figure 3A,B). As a source of energy during germination, the amount of starch granules decreased significantly after 4 DAT compared to 2 HAT, which is the normal physiological activity of seed germination (Figure 3C). However, under the same treatment conditions, the content of starch granules in Sticky nightshade seeds was not significantly changed (Figure 3D–F). Surprisingly, the content in the Sticky nightshade seeds treated with GA3 could also be significantly reduced at 4 DAT compared to 2 HAT (Figure 3G–I). The difference in starch granules after GA3 treatment in Sticky nightshade seeds was more pronounced during the same period. This suggests that GA3 treatment exerted a high capacity for enhancing the degradation of starch granules in Sticky nightshade, thereby providing essential nutrients and energy for seed germination.

3.4. MDA Content of Seeds After GA3 Treatment

MDA content is an important parameter reflecting the antioxidant potential of seeds and can also serve as an indicator to assess whether the plasma membrane has undergone lipid peroxidation stress. When the plasma membrane is subjected to peroxidation stress, the sugars decomposed from starch granules are not well supplied to the embryo for nutritional provision.
The MDA content of HongBao 9403 reaches a peak at 2 DAT and then decreases at 4 DAT (Figure 4). In contrast, the MDA content of Sticky nightshade seeds without GA3 treatment first drops to its lowest point at 2 DAT and then increases at 4 DAT. For Sticky nightshade seeds treated with GA3, the MDA content gradually decreases from 0 to 4 DAT (Figure 4). The decrease–increase pattern in MDA content in untreated seeds requires further investigation. However, it is certain that the MDA content in GA3-treated Sticky nightshade seeds decreases steadily, with the MDA content at 4 DAT significantly lower than that at 2 HAT (Figure 4). These data proved that Sticky nightshade seeds treated with GA3 can reduce the content of MDA. Therefore, we can infer that the application of exogenous GA3 treated can steadily reduce the level of MDA in Sticky nightshade seeds, possibly by maintaining the normal function of the plasma membrane.

4. Discussion

There are many factors that affect seed germination. By comparing the germination of Sticky nightshade with that of HongBao 9403, we found that Sticky nightshade exhibits a lower germination rate and a longer germination period. We applied exogenous GA3 to the seeds and found that when the seeds were soaked in 400 mg/L of GA3, the germination rate of Sticky nightshade increased, the germination period shortened, and the germination dynamic curve became closer to that of HongBao 9403 (Figure 1). Through paraffin sectioning of HongBao 9403 and Sticky nightshade seeds, we discovered significant differences in the amount of starch granules (Figure 2A–C), as well as in the thickness of the testa (Figure 2D). However, the GA3 treatment did not result in notable changes in the thickness of Sticky nightshade’s testa. Intriguingly, after GA3 treatment, the number of starch granules in the endosperm cells of Sticky nightshade seeds decreased significantly (Figure 3G–I), leading us to speculate that more starch granules were decomposed into sugars for the provision of nutrients required during seed germination. The starch granules in the seeds are degraded into soluble sugars, mainly glucose, by the action of amylase. The soluble sugars may also help to modulate the cell’s osmotic pressure, avoid cell membrane damage, and contribute to seed germination [13].
Physiological dormancy (PD) is supposed to be an obstacle for plant propagation and breeding programs [26]. PD is mainly manifested in the embryo, which lacks the necessary force to break through the mechanical barriers posed by its surrounding structures, including the endosperm, seed coat (testa), and non-opening fruit peels [27]. Based on the GA3-treatment germination experiment, Sticky nightshade can germinate on the fourth day after being treated with GA3. Although the Sticky nightshade seeds germinate after GA3 treatment, we also believe that the excessively thick testa of Sticky nightshade is one of the reasons for its slow germination. In previous research, GA appears to play a role primarily in overcoming dormancy-related constraints, which are partly induced by ABA, as well as in overcoming the resistance of the embryo’s surrounding tissues, including that provided by the integuments and the endosperm [28]. Other investigations have shown that GA can induce and regulate genes encoding cell-wall degrading enzymes [29]. Comparing with treated and untreated Sticky nightshade seeds’ testa thickness, we did not find significant changes. However, it is likely that the hardness of the testa changes after GA3 treatment, which remains to be further verified.
We have also measured the endogenous GA3 content in the untreated HongBao 9403, as well as Sticky nightshade seeds treated or untreated with GA3 at 2 HAT, 2 DAT, and 4 DAT (Figure S1). Interestingly, the GA3 content in untreated HongBao 9403 at 2 HAT was significantly lower than that in the untreated Sticky nightshade seeds, and the GA3 content in the treated Sticky nightshade seeds was also significantly lower than that in the untreated Sticky nightshade seeds. We speculate that the low germination rate of Sticky nightshade is unlikely to be caused by low endogenous GA content, but may be due to the fact that endogenous GA is not appropriately utilized during the seed germination. α-amylase can hydrolyze starch granules into soluble sugars that inhibit ABA signaling genes, thereby inhibiting seed dormancy [30]. Endogenous GA is supposed to promote α-amylase, leading to the hydrolysis of starch granules and thus enhanced seed germination. However, the co-occurrence of relatively high endogenous GA3 in Sticky nightshade and the low germination rate awaits further investigation.

5. Conclusions

This study investigated the potential reasons for the low germination rate of Sticky nightshade. Our findings indicate that GA3 treatment significantly enhances the germination rate of Sticky nightshade and shortens its germination period. Furthermore, by applying various concentrations of GA3, we observed that a concentration of 400 mg/L yielded a dramatic increase in the germination rate and shortened the germination time.
We further investigated paraffin sections of Sticky nightshade and the commercial cultivar HongBao 9403 with or without 400 mg/L GA3. There is a significant decrease in starch granule content in Sticky nightshade seeds 4 days after GA3 treatment. GA3 treatment could steadily reduce the content of MDA and promote seed germination, possibly by alleviating cell damage in Sticky nightshade.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/horticulturae10121342/s1, Figure S1: GA3 content in Sticky nightshade (SN) and HongBao 9403 (HB) at 2 hours after treatment (HAT), 2 days after treatment (DAT), and 4 DAT with or without 400 mg/L GA3, respectively. Data were analyzed by one-way ANOVA and are represented as the mean ± standard deviation. Different letters above the columns of three time points of same treatment indicate significant differences at 0.05 levels.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, Y.Z. and H.X.; methodology, H.X., X.Z. and J.T.; software, H.X., X.Z., F.L., P.G., Y.Y. and Z.W.; validation, H.X., D.M., X.Z., F.L., J.T., P.G., Y.Y. and Z.W.; formal analysis, H.X., D.M., X.Z., F.L., J.T., P.G., Y.Y. and Z.W.; investigation, H.X. and D.M.; resources, Y.Z.; writing—original draft preparation, H.X. and D.M.; writing—review and editing, Y.Z., F.L., J.T., P.G., Y.Y. and Z.W.; supervision, Y.Z.; funding acquisition, Y.Z. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This work was supported by grants from the National Key Research & Development Plan (2021YFD1200201; 2022YFD1200502); National Natural Science Foundation of China (32372696); Wuhan Biological Breeding Major Project (2022021302024852); HZAU-AGIS Cooperation Fund (SZYJY2023022); Funds for the High-Quality Development of Hubei Seed Industry (HBZY2023B004); Hubei Agriculture Research System (2023HBSTX4-06); Funds of the National Key Laboratory for Germplasm Innovation & Utilization of Horticultural Crops (Horti-3Y-2024-008); and the Key Project of Hubei Hongshan Laboratory (Grant No. 2021hszd007).

Data Availability Statement

Data are contained within the article.

Acknowledgments

The authors thank Tingyan Zhang and Limei Zhang from the College of Resources & Environment of Huazhong Agricultural University for their technical assistance.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. Accumulated germination percentage curve of Sticky nightshade (SN) and the cultivated eggplant HongBao 9403 (HB 9403) under different concentrations of GA3 treatment.
Figure 1. Accumulated germination percentage curve of Sticky nightshade (SN) and the cultivated eggplant HongBao 9403 (HB 9403) under different concentrations of GA3 treatment.
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Figure 2. Paraffin sections of seeds of Sticky nightshade (SN) and HongBao 9403 (CK). (A) Internal structure of CK seeds captured by a 100× microscope, scale 100 μm. (B) Starch granules per cell of CK and SN. (C) Internal structure of SN seeds captured by a 100× microscope, scale 100 μm. (D) Testa thickness of CK and SN. Data were analyzed by Student’s t-test (two-tailed), and the data are represented as the mean ± standard deviation. ** indicates a significant difference at the 0.01 level.
Figure 2. Paraffin sections of seeds of Sticky nightshade (SN) and HongBao 9403 (CK). (A) Internal structure of CK seeds captured by a 100× microscope, scale 100 μm. (B) Starch granules per cell of CK and SN. (C) Internal structure of SN seeds captured by a 100× microscope, scale 100 μm. (D) Testa thickness of CK and SN. Data were analyzed by Student’s t-test (two-tailed), and the data are represented as the mean ± standard deviation. ** indicates a significant difference at the 0.01 level.
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Figure 3. Comparison of starch granules between seeds of Sticky nightshade (SN) and the cultivated eggplant HongBao 9403 (CK) with or without treatment of 400 mg/L GA3. (A) Paraffin section of HongBao 9403 seeds 2 hours after treatment (HAT) without GA3. (B) Paraffin section of HongBao 9403 4 days after treatment (DAT) without GA3. (C) Comparison of starch granules in Hong Bao 9403 seeds at 2 HAT and 4 DAT without GA3. (D) Paraffin section of Sticky nightshade seeds at 2 HAT without GA3. (E) Paraffin section of GA3 Sticky nightshade seeds at 4 DAT without GA3. (F) Comparison of starch granules in Sticky nightshade seeds at 2 HAT and 4 DAT without GA3. (G) Paraffin section of Sticky nightshade seeds at 2 HAT with 400 mg/L GA3. (H) Paraffin section of Sticky nightshade seeds at 4 DAT with 400 mg/L GA3. (I) Comparison of starch granules in Sticky nightshade seeds at 2 HAT and 4 DAT with 400 mg/L GA3. Data were analyzed by Student’s t-test (two-tailed), and the data are represented as the mean ± standard deviation * indicates a significant difference at the p < 0.05 level, and ns indicates not significant.
Figure 3. Comparison of starch granules between seeds of Sticky nightshade (SN) and the cultivated eggplant HongBao 9403 (CK) with or without treatment of 400 mg/L GA3. (A) Paraffin section of HongBao 9403 seeds 2 hours after treatment (HAT) without GA3. (B) Paraffin section of HongBao 9403 4 days after treatment (DAT) without GA3. (C) Comparison of starch granules in Hong Bao 9403 seeds at 2 HAT and 4 DAT without GA3. (D) Paraffin section of Sticky nightshade seeds at 2 HAT without GA3. (E) Paraffin section of GA3 Sticky nightshade seeds at 4 DAT without GA3. (F) Comparison of starch granules in Sticky nightshade seeds at 2 HAT and 4 DAT without GA3. (G) Paraffin section of Sticky nightshade seeds at 2 HAT with 400 mg/L GA3. (H) Paraffin section of Sticky nightshade seeds at 4 DAT with 400 mg/L GA3. (I) Comparison of starch granules in Sticky nightshade seeds at 2 HAT and 4 DAT with 400 mg/L GA3. Data were analyzed by Student’s t-test (two-tailed), and the data are represented as the mean ± standard deviation * indicates a significant difference at the p < 0.05 level, and ns indicates not significant.
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Figure 4. Malondialdehyde (MDA) content of Sticky nightshade (SN) and HongBao 9403 (HB) with or without treatment of 400 mg/L GA3. Data were analyzed by one-way ANOVA and are presented as the mean ± standard deviation. Different letters above the columns of three time points of same treatment indicate significant differences at the 0.05 level. DAT, days after treatment; HAT, hours after treatment.
Figure 4. Malondialdehyde (MDA) content of Sticky nightshade (SN) and HongBao 9403 (HB) with or without treatment of 400 mg/L GA3. Data were analyzed by one-way ANOVA and are presented as the mean ± standard deviation. Different letters above the columns of three time points of same treatment indicate significant differences at the 0.05 level. DAT, days after treatment; HAT, hours after treatment.
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Table 1. Germination characteristics of Sticky nightshade (SN) and cultivated HongBao 9403 (HB 9403) under different concentrations of GA3 treatment.
Table 1. Germination characteristics of Sticky nightshade (SN) and cultivated HongBao 9403 (HB 9403) under different concentrations of GA3 treatment.
TreatmentGermination
Period (d)		Germination
Potential (%)		Germination
Index
HB-9403 0 mg/L569.21 ± 0.32 aA8.34 ± 1.03 aA
SN-GA3 0 mg/L90.00 ± 0.00 bB1.04 ± 1.07 cC
SN-GA3 200 mg/90.00 ± 0.00 bB3.77 ± 0.70 bB
SN-GA3 400 mg/L51.75 ± 0.03 bB4.50 ± 0.22 bB
SN-GA3 600 mg/L96.52 ± 0.08 bB3.23 ± 1.29 bBC
SN-GA3 800 mg/L94.90 ± 0.05 bB3.23 ± 1.29 bBC
Note: Different lowercase or uppercase letters in the same column indicate significant differences in each indicator at the p < 0.05 or p < 0.01 level, respectively.
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MDPI and ACS Style

Xu, H.; Mo, D.; Zhang, X.; Li, F.; Tao, J.; Ge, P.; Yang, Y.; Wang, Z.; Zhang, Y. Gibberellin Treatment Accelerates Starch Decomposition and Seed Germination in Sticky Nightshade (Solanum sisymbriifolium Lam.). Horticulturae 2024, 10, 1342. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae10121342

AMA Style

Xu H, Mo D, Zhang X, Li F, Tao J, Ge P, Yang Y, Wang Z, Zhang Y. Gibberellin Treatment Accelerates Starch Decomposition and Seed Germination in Sticky Nightshade (Solanum sisymbriifolium Lam.). Horticulturae. 2024; 10(12):1342. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae10121342

Chicago/Turabian Style

Xu, Haobo, Danni Mo, Xingyu Zhang, Fangman Li, Jinbao Tao, Pingfei Ge, Yang Yang, Ziyuan Wang, and Yuyang Zhang. 2024. "Gibberellin Treatment Accelerates Starch Decomposition and Seed Germination in Sticky Nightshade (Solanum sisymbriifolium Lam.)" Horticulturae 10, no. 12: 1342. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae10121342

APA Style

Xu, H., Mo, D., Zhang, X., Li, F., Tao, J., Ge, P., Yang, Y., Wang, Z., & Zhang, Y. (2024). Gibberellin Treatment Accelerates Starch Decomposition and Seed Germination in Sticky Nightshade (Solanum sisymbriifolium Lam.). Horticulturae, 10(12), 1342. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae10121342

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