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Article

Caffeine Consumption and Risk Assessment Among Adults in Saudi Arabia: A Cross-Sectional Study

by
Lulu A. Almutairi
*,
Abdullah A. Alsayari
and
Amani S. Alqahtani
Saudi Food and Drug Authority, Riyadh 13513, Saudi Arabia
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Beverages 2025, 11(4), 123; https://doi.org/10.3390/beverages11040123
Submission received: 25 May 2025 / Revised: 23 July 2025 / Accepted: 12 August 2025 / Published: 21 August 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Tea, Coffee, Water, and Other Non-Alcoholic Beverages)

Abstract

Background/Objectives: This study aimed to assess the consumption of caffeinated beverages and the associated caffeine intake among Saudi adults, alongside a quantitative risk assessment using the hazard quotient (HQ) approach. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted, utilizing a validated Arabic Beverage Frequency Questionnaire to collect data on beverage consumption patterns. The participants reported the type, frequency, and quantity of caffeinated beverages consumed. We also calculated caffeine intake and assessed the associated health risks. Data were collected from 4367 participants across 13 regions in Saudi Arabia. Results: This study involved adult participants (18–65 years), with 45% females and 55% males. The mean age of the participants is 35 years. The participants reported the type, frequency, and quantity of caffeinated beverages consumed through a self-reported online survey. The most commonly consumed caffeinated beverages were Saudi coffee (79%), soft drinks (75%), and sweetened tea (69.3%). The highest consumption was observed in the 30–44 age group. The mean daily caffeine intake was 131 ± 1.4 mg/day (145 ± 2.3 mg/day for males, 120 ± 1.8 mg/day for females). Although female participants consumed more beverages, male participants had higher caffeine intake (p = 0.000). The mean HQ for caffeine exposure was 0.32, with a 95th percentile of 0.33, indicating no significant risk. Pregnant and lactating women’s caffeine intake also remained within safe limits. Conclusions: The average caffeine intake among Saudis is below 400 mg/day, suggesting no immediate health concerns. However, public health initiatives should focus on educating specific population groups about the safe limits of caffeine consumption.

1. Introduction

Caffeine, a member of the methylxanthine class, it is a naturally occurring central nervous system stimulant that is widely known as the most commonly used psychoactive stimulant globally [1]. Caffeine can be found naturally in certain types of tea, cacao beans, and coffee beans, which is the most common source of caffeine. Additionally, caffeine stimulant is included as an additive in some beverages [1]. Beverages and products contain caffeine include coffee, tea, and soft drinks, as well as in products containing cocoa or chocolate, and a variety of medications and dietary supplements [2].
Caffeine is absorbed quickly when taken orally and its effects can start within 15 to 30 min, lasting for several hours. The half-life of caffeine in healthy adults averages around four hours but can vary based on factors like age, weight, and liver health [3]. Furthermore, its effects go far beyond temporary stimulation. Caffeine consumption on a regular basis has been demonstrated to cause functional changes in the brain [4]. Neuroimaging studies have shown that caffeine rewires neural circuits, and multi-omics analyses have shown that it enhances brain metabolism and synaptic plasticity. These results imply that regular caffeine consumption may support brain health and cognitive optimization [4]. Despite these benefits, the repeated intake of caffeinated beverages, particularly coffee, is sometimes driven by a desire for improved well-being, including optimism and happiness [5].
Based on data from 1990 to 2016 for 87 different countries, caffeine consumption has increased over time and is highly consumed globally [6]. The total caffeine consumption is increasing mainly due to population growth [6]. In the United States, 89% of adults consume caffeinated products, with little difference between men and women in frequency of consumption, and the average intake is about 211 mg/day [7]. In the European Union, the minimum and maximum total daily caffeine intake was 36.5–319.4 mg for adults (18–<65 year old) based on surveys of 31,818 participants [8]. In Sweden and Finland, caffeine intake is approximately 210–238 mg/person/day [9].
Locally, the total caffeine intake among the Saudi population remains unclear. One study conducted in the Western Province of 1036 participants found that most participants consume coffee and tea (97%), and other caffeine sources are from over-the-counter medications (21%), energy drinks (17%), and other sources such as soft drinks and chocolate (4%) [10]. However, in Saudi Arabia, caffeine is mainly consumed through coffee, which has significant cultural importance in the country [11]. Saudis consume an average of about 1.2 kg of coffee per person per year, exceeding the global average of 0.7 kg per person annually [11,12].
Caffeine’s action depends on age, sex, source, and consumed dose; it may have a positive effect on cognitive performance, memory, and brain function [13]. Nevertheless, at high doses, caffeine may induce potential adverse health effects like nervousness, anxiety, restlessness, insomnia, and tremors [13]. The evidence supports that consumption of up to 400 mg of caffeine/day in healthy adults is not associated with overt, adverse cardiovascular effects, behavioral effects, reproductive and developmental effects, acute effects, or bone status [14,15]. Evidence also supports that consumption of up to 300 mg of caffeine/day in healthy pregnant women as an intake is generally not associated with adverse reproductive and developmental effects [14,15]. Limited data were identified for child and adolescent populations; the available evidence suggests that 2.5 mg caffeine/kg body weight/day remains an appropriate recommendation [14,15]. Therefore, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) and Saudi Food and Drug Authority (SFDA) suggest that consumers should not exceed 400 mg of caffeine/day for healthy adults and 300 mg of caffeine/day in healthy pregnant women.
Although regular and moderate caffeine intake has been associated with enhanced longevity, a lower risk of chronic diseases, and functional changes in the brain [4,16], the widespread use of coffee and the introduction of numerous caffeine-containing products suggest that instances of caffeine toxicity, while rare and typically linked to acute, massive doses, may still arise [11]. Therefore, this study aims to identify the pattern of caffeinated beverage consumption and caffeine intake among adults in Saudi Arabia from the most popular caffeinated beverages. In addition to quantitatively assessing the risk of caffeine intake compared to EFSA upper limit recommendations, this study could provide the SFDA with new data on caffeine consumption patterns among Saudi residents, enhance the understanding of the caffeine intake levels, and improve public health guidelines to ensure consumer safety regarding caffeine consumption.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Design

A cross-sectional quantitative risk assessment study of caffeine intake among Saudi residents was conducted using national beverage consumption data collected from 2022 to 2024, EFSA caffeine upper limit, and caffeine concentration in each caffeinated beverage category.

2.2. Sample/Inclusion Criteria

Our sample provides caffeine intake data for 4367 participants. We included male and female participants aged between 18 and 65 from all regions of Saudi Arabia, encompassing both Saudis and non-Saudis. We specifically targeted this age range as the EFSA caffeine upper limit intake of caffeine that we considered for the risk assessment pertains to adults aged 18 to 65. Figure 1 illustrates the sample cleaning process based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria. In terms of beverage categories, we identified and included those within 25 beverage categories that potentially contained caffeine and excluded other beverage categories known not to contain caffeine.

2.3. Variables

2.3.1. Caffeinated Beverage Consumption Data

The total caffeine intake of the Saudi residents from caffeinated beverages was collected using a validated tool (Arabic Beverage Frequency Questionnaire (ABFQ)) [17]. The survey was collected using a proportional quota sampling technique of participants from all 13 regions in Saudi Arabia stratified by region, age, and gender. The daily beverage consumption of various beverages and other demographic data were collected using a self-reported online survey. The survey was built as an electronic version sent to the participants via SMS to random phone numbers from governmental database considering the inclusion and exclusion criteria. The consumption data was collected from 2022 to 2024. The survey comprises variables of participants’ characteristics, including age, gender, education, marital status, body weight (bw), and, in female participants, if they are pregnant or lactating. The variables of beverage consumption consist of the consumption frequency per month/week or day and the amount of the consumed beverage per mL. Subjects were asked to report all the consumed beverage categories during one-month period. For each category, the consumption frequency was quantitatively assessed by asking, “during the last 30 days, how many times you drink…”. The response was categorized into the following: never, once a month, twice a month, three times a month, once a week, 2–3 times a week, 4–6 times a week, once a day, twice a day, or 3 times a day. Then, the amounts consumed were assessed by asking, “how much did you usually drink each time?” in combination with a series of pictures of the common serving size of each type of beverage, such as common cups, bottles, and containers with the volume in (mL). To score the ABFQ, frequency (“How often”) was transformed to the unit of times per day and then multiplied by the amount consumed (“How much each time”) to find the beverage average daily intake in (mL) using the following formula: [(consumption frequency per month/30 days) × amount consumed each time (mL)  =  average daily intake (mL/day)].

2.3.2. Caffeine Concentration in Caffeinated Beverages

We have 15 caffeinated beverage categories included in this study. The categories consist of pure caffeinated beverages and caffeinated beverages with additives such as sugar or milk. The categories are as follows: soft drinks, iced tea, sugar-free soft drinks, sugar-free tea, sugar and milk tea, Saudi coffee with milk, Saudi coffee without milk, sugar-free Turkish or espresso coffee, sweetened Turkish or espresso coffee, sugar-free black coffee, sweetened black coffee, flavored coffee, sugar-free energy drinks, sweetened energy drinks, and sports drinks. The caffeine concentrations for each beverage category were collected using two datasets: The first one is dataset provided by ESHA Research, a private organization providing food labeling services [18]. The dataset includes information about food nutrition values and other diet-related information. This source was used to extract the caffeine concentrations for home-prepared drinks, such as plain coffee or coffee with milk. The second dataset is the Saudi Branded Food Database (SBFD), which is a reference database for the nutritional content of pre-packaged foods and beverages available in Saudi Arabia [19]. This dataset was used to extract the caffeine concentration for pre-packaged caffeinated drinks, such as soft drinks. The caffeine concentration values are expressed as mg/100 mL (Table 1).

2.3.3. Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI) of Caffeine

As per EFSA, it is considered safe for the general healthy adult population to consume single doses of caffeine up to 200 mg from all sources. Additionally, habitual caffeine intake up to 400 mg per day from all sources is not deemed to pose safety concerns for healthy adults in the general population. Moreover, EFSA recommends that pregnant women should limit their daily caffeine intake to a maximum of 300 mg. Therefore, this study’s risk assessment utilized the reference points of 400 mg/day for the general population and 300 mg/day for pregnant women as the acceptable daily intake.

2.4. Statistical Analysis

We conducted a descriptive analysis to calculate summary statistics for all the variables. The study sample was described using numbers and percentages, with mean and standard error of the mean (SE) for the average age. Participants were divided into four age groups according to the World Health Organization guidelines: 18–29 years, 30–44 years, 45–59 years, and ≥60 years. The variables for caffeinated beverage consumption were described as frequencies to illustrate the pattern of consumption over a 30-day period. To estimate the daily caffeine intake from all the sources (beverage categories), we first multiplied the average consumption amount of each caffeine source by its caffeine concentration to obtain the intake of every category separately. Then, to calculate the overall intake from all caffeine sources, we used the following formula:
Daily Intake from Source = Average Consumption × Caffeine concentration per mg
The contents of caffeine intake were described as means, SEs, medians, and IQRs of caffeine per mg/100 mL. The differences in mean caffeine intake among groups were compared using paired t-tests for two groups and ANOVA for more than three groups. We considered a 2-sided p value of <0.05 as statistically significant.
For the risk assessment, we used hazard quotient (HQ) approach, which is defined as the ratio between the toxicological threshold and the estimated human intake (EDI). We used the following formula to calculate the HQ:
HQ = ADI/EDI
where ADI refers to the EFSA caffeine upper limit dose for healthy adults (400 mg/day), and the estimated daily intake (EDI) from all caffeinated beverages of participants was used to determine the exposure level. The HQ was calculated for different exposure scenarios, including the overall participants’ mean intake, genders’ mean intake, and age groups’ mean intake. In interpreting the HQ, a high HQ indicates a higher risk, meaning that the exposure level is much higher than the dose associated with adverse effects. Conversely, a low HQ indicates a lower risk, as the exposure level is far from the dose associated with adverse effects. As the HQ number approaches 1, it indicates a high risk, as there is no margin of safety between the current exposure level and the level at which adverse effects are observed, suggesting a significant risk of experiencing adverse effects at this level of intake.
To account for uncertainty and variability in measuring caffeine intake or individual consumption habits, we implemented a Monte Carlo simulation model with 10,000 iterations. The health risk calculation values were reported at the 95th percentile. Statistical analyses for this study were performed using IBM SPSS V.23.0 software and Microsoft Excel V.2016.

3. Results

3.1. Description of the Tested Group

A total of 4367 participants were involved in this study, with 1970 (45%) females and 2397 (55%) males. Approximately half of the participants, totaling 2042 (46.8%), were between the ages of 30 and 44, with a mean age of 35 (±0.16). More than half of the participants, 2747 (62.9%), were married, while 22 (5.6%) were either divorced or widowed. Pregnant or lactating women made up 244 (5.6%) of the tested group. When considering the regional distribution of participants, the numbers were fairly consistent across regions, with Riyadh (485, 11.1%), Madinah (480, 11%), Albaha (398, 9.1%), and Aseer (363, 8.3%) having the highest representation. For further details about participant characteristics, refer to Table 2.

3.2. Pattern of Caffeinated Beverage Consumption

The most consumed caffeinated beverages were Saudi coffee (3454, 79%), soft drinks (3274, 75%), and sweetened tea (3026, 69.30%). The least commonly consumed beverages were diet energy drinks (495, 11.33%) and sports drinks (356, 8.15%). Most caffeinated beverages are consumed monthly rather than on a weekly or daily basis. However, Saudi coffee, sweetened tea, and unsweetened tea are mostly consumed daily. Females consume more caffeinated beverages than males in all groups, except for sweetened and unsweetened tea and sweetened and unsweetened energy drinks, which are consumed more by males. The highest age group consumers of caffeinated beverages are aged 30–44, except for iced tea and energy drinks, which are consumed mostly by the 18–29 age group. People aged 65+ mostly consume Saudi coffee and unsweetened tea, while the least consumed caffeinated beverages among this age group are energy drinks, sports drinks, and black coffee. Table 3 provides the prevalence of each caffeinated beverage consumption pattern and consumers by gender and age group.

3.3. Caffeine Intake

Mean individual caffeine intake among all adults aged 18 years and older was 131 ± 1.4 mg/day (145 ± 2.3 mg/day for males; 120 ± 1.8 mg/day for women). About (86, 2%) of study participants consumed more than 400 mg/day of caffeine. The average caffeine intake was (121–135 mg/day) among different age groups. There was a significant difference in caffeine intake between males and females (p < 0.0001). Across the region, there was no significant difference (p > 0.05). However, looking at the mean caffeine intake, Riyadh (146 ± 4.7 mg/day), Aljouf (144 ± 5.4), and Hail (141 ± 5.3 mg/day) had the highest caffeine intake. There was no significant difference in caffeine intake among age groups (p < 0.05). However, caffeine consumption decreased with age; specifically, caffeine intake was high among younger individuals aged 18 to 44 years and lowest among individuals aged 46 to 65. More details of the mean caffeine intake of participants are in Table 4.
The study participants consumed the highest amounts of caffeine from the following beverage categories: black or filtered coffee (169 ± 2.3 mg/day), diet energy drinks (169 ± 4.9 mg/day), sport drinks (169 ± 5.6 mg/day), and sweetened energy drinks (165 ± 3.2 mg/day). Meanwhile, the lowest caffeine intakes were from soft drinks, sweetened tea, and Saudi coffee. More details of the caffeine intake per beverage category can be found in Table 5.

3.4. Risk Assessment of Caffeine

Risk assessment was conducted on the overall caffeine intake of all participants using the average intake of caffeine, which was 131 ± 1.4 mg/day compared to the 400 mg suggested by EFSA. The mean exposure of caffeine is estimated to be 0.32 mg/day, with a 95th percentile of uncertainty reaching 0.33, indicating that there is no risk of caffeine intake among all participants. When looking at the HQ of male and female participants of all age groups, the HQ is marginally below 1, suggesting no significant risk. However, males of all age groups showed a slightly higher likelihood of being at a higher risk of caffeine intake (Table 6). On the other hand, the HQ of pregnant/lactating women is 0.52, with the 95th percentile of uncertainty reaching 0.56, indicating a 95% probability that the true HQ is below 0.56. As both the mean and the upper bound of uncertainty are below 1, the risk of adverse effects from exposure is considered low, with minimal variability in the estimate.

4. Discussion

In this study, 4367 participants from all regions of Saudi Arabia were surveyed to evaluate their caffeine intake from the most popular caffeinated beverages. Our findings indicate that caffeine consumption is within safe limits and that the primary sources of caffeine are Saudi coffee, soft drinks, and sweetened tea. Female consumers tend to consume caffeinated beverages more than males, while males have a higher caffeine intake than females.
In Saudi Arabia, caffeinated beverages are widely consumed. Coffees from various countries, such as American coffees, Turkish coffee, and caffeinated cold drinks, are served in restaurants and cafes by Saudis. In this study all types of caffeinated beverages were consumed by a number of participants. Saudi coffee was the most frequently consumed beverage, consumed daily by the majority of participants, followed in descending order of prevalence by soft drinks and tea. This was also found by several other studies that measured the caffeine intake among different Saudi populations. A study conducted in Jazan found Saudi coffee as the most frequently consumed caffeinated beverage (66.1%), followed by tea (57.7%) and soft drinks (46.8%) [20]. This also aligns with other studies conducted on the Saudi population; however, they were all conducted on small specific groups [10,21,22]. This high prevalence of consumption for these beverage categories can be attributed to the socio-cultural nature of the Arab region, compared to other regions of the world [20]. Saudi coffee holds a significant place in the country’s culture and is a favorite during social gatherings and religious ceremonies; it has a special status in Saudi society in terms of cultivation, preparation, and presentation. This cultural importance likely contributes to the higher consumption of Saudi coffee when compared to other caffeinated beverages. Tea is also a prevalent and significant beverage in Saudi households, often savored with meals and during social events. On the other hand, soft drinks were highly consumed on a weekly and monthly basis, and 75% of the participants consumed soft drinks at least once a month. This is comparable with other studies, in which 3928 Saudis (67%) consumed soft drinks weekly [23]. Saudi Arabia is one of the biggest consumers of soft drinks in the Middle East with 85.8% of adults reporting consumption of soft drinks, and, of them, 16% reported consuming soft drinks daily or frequently (3–6 times per week) [24]. Several studies found that coffee, tea, and soft drinks were the top caffeinated beverages consumed by the study participants; these studies were conducted in the USA [25], Canada [8], China [26], and Switzerland [27], and New Zealand [8]. Moreover, in most surveys conducted within the EU, coffee and tea were the predominant source of caffeine for adults [3].
The average individual daily caffeine intake from beverages among adults in Saudi Arabia is 131 ± 1.4 mg/day, which falls within the normal range compared to other countries’ caffeine intake. In the USA, the mean daily caffeine intake from all beverages was 165 ± 1 mg for all age groups [25]. In Canada, a review of nationally representative studies indicated that the mean total daily caffeine intake from beverages in children, adolescents, and adults is below caffeine intake recommendations [8]. In China, the average caffeine intake from all sources is 123 mg/day for males and 116 mg/day for females [26]. Moreover, the mean caffeine intake from beverages for the Swiss population aged 18 to 75 was 191 mg/day (±129) [27]. In Korea, the overall caffeine intake was slightly less, with a mean intake of 102.6 mg/day from all sources in the general population [28]. It is noteworthy that the mean caffeine intake in all these countries is less than 200 mg/day. This consistency in mean caffeine intake below 200 mg/day across various countries could be attributed to common factors, such as voluntary limitation of intake aligning with global recommendations, or similar beverage preferences. For instance, tea, coffee, and soft drinks are the most commonly consumed caffeinated beverages, which might lead to a consistent average caffeine intake below 200 mg/day.
The distribution of caffeine intake varies across consumer characteristics, such as age, gender, and region; nevertheless, the differences are generally minimal, not exceeding 25 mg between the highest and lowest intake within each characteristic category. Overall, although females tend to consume more caffeinated beverages than males, males are exposed to higher levels of caffeine. There was a notable disparity in caffeine consumption between males and females, with males consuming 25 mg more caffeine per day than females. This could be due to the fact that beverages with higher caffeine content are more frequently consumed by males than females. Several studies have reported similar disparities in caffeine intake between genders, consistently finding that males tend to consume more caffeine than females [8,26,27].
In the current study, age was not found to be a determining factor for higher caffeine intake. However, caffeine intake tended to decrease with increasing age, and the youngest age group (18–29) had the highest caffeine intake. Similar results were found in other studies, indicating that younger adults might tend to consume more caffeine [29]. Conversely, studies revealed that individuals aged 20 to 24 years consumed much less caffeine than middle-aged individuals (aged 50 to 79 years) and older individuals (aged 75 to 79 years) [30]. Furthermore, young adults in this study were amongst the highest consumers of energy drinks and iced tea. These beverages are well-known for their high caffeine concentration and are more frequently consumed by younger adults [31,32,33]. Taking into account that, even though Saudi coffee, tea, and soft drinks are the highest consumed caffeinated beverages, those who consumed energy drinks, sport drinks, and black filtered coffee had higher caffeine intake. Nonetheless, given the increasing popularity of these products, it is important to continuously monitor caffeine consumption among younger populations.
Our study indicates that consuming caffeine from caffeinated beverages presents relatively low health risks for Saudi adults in accordance with the recommended caffeine safety threshold of 400 mg/day. Moreover, our findings suggest that the intake level remains safe even after conducting a further risk assessment based on participants’ characteristics and accounting for uncertainties. This could be due to a general awareness of making moderate beverage choices and lifestyle habits that naturally limit consumption. Additionally, the SFDA has implemented several interventions to regulate caffeine consumption and promote public safety. One of their key strategies includes setting clear guidelines on the maximum allowable caffeine content in products like energy drinks [34]. These guidelines help limit overconsumption, especially among younger populations. The SFDA also emphasizes public education, advising consumers to limit caffeine intake during Ramadan, particularly after Iftar [35]. Additionally, the SFDA provides a tool to help individuals track their daily intake and stay within recommended limits, contributing to better awareness and self-regulation among consumers [36]. However, we recommended that the SFDA mandate that beverage companies disclose the caffeine content in every product containing caffeine. As for now, some of the products, such as iced tea, lack the concentration information on the product’s label, and this applies to some pre-packaged products that may contain caffeine. Disclosing the concentration of caffeine as a mandatory requirement could help the consumer in counting their daily intake.
However, a few individuals (2%) consumed more than 400 mg/day, indicating potential health risks for these individuals. Our findings of the risk and intake assessment are consistent with other studies where the majority of the participants’ intake of caffeine was within the safe limit, and only a few individuals exceeded 400 mg: Switzerland (6.6%), China (5.5%), and the USA [25,26]. While high intake generally suggests potential health risks, it is crucial to consider that an individual’s response to caffeine is significantly influenced by genetic polymorphisms affecting both pharmacokinetic (such as CYP1A2 activity ) and pharmacodynamic (such as adenosine A(2A) receptor polymorphisms) sensitivity levels [37]. Consequently, individuals who are fast metabolizers or possess specific A2A receptor genotypes (e.g., TT) may require and tolerate higher caffeine doses to achieve desired effects [38]. For these individuals, their elevated intake might not necessarily translate to increased health risk, and in fact, may be essential for them to experience the acute and chronic benefits of coffee that others feel at lower doses. Beyond these genetic factors, other influences on high consumption include general high caffeine tolerance, reliance on energy drinks or coffee for energy, lack of awareness of cumulative intake, and demanding lifestyles that encourage overconsumption [39].
The EFSA advises pregnant women to limit their caffeine intake to less than 200 mg per day. In the current study, pregnant and lactating women’s caffeine intake from all caffeinated beverages was within the safe limit and lower than the average intake of the general population. However, the risk assessment showed that the average hazard quotient for pregnant and lactating women was slightly higher than that of the overall population. This may be due to a lack of awareness about safe caffeine intake for pregnant women, as their average intake is only slightly less than non-pregnant women. Although the Ministry of Health (MOH) is working on raising awareness about women’s health, including information about caffeine intake [40], it is suggested that more efforts be made by public health authorities to increase awareness among pregnant women. Compared to other studies, there is limited data on daily caffeine intake in pregnant or lactating women. One study in Latvia involving 1002 pregnant women found a mean daily caffeine intake from all sources of 109 mg/day. Another small study in Greece involving 65 lactating women reported a mean daily caffeine intake from all sources of 31 mg/day [8].
This study has several strengths, including a relatively large tested group that is representative of Saudi adults from all regions. The sampling technique used could limit the risk of selection bias. Furthermore, this is the first recent study to assess the consumption pattern and measure the caffeine intake from a variety of caffeinated beverages among Saudis. Additionally, the tool used to conduct the consumption assessment is a validated one. However, some limitations may arise due to the cross-sectional study design and the potential for recall bias, as the data is self-reported. Furthermore, the caffeine intake was based only on beverages, limiting our chance of generalizability of total caffeine intake.

5. Conclusions

In conclusion, for the overall population, caffeine intake appears not to be a major concern. However, certain individuals and pregnant women are advised to be aware of their daily intake. Therefore, at this stage, caffeine is not considered a public health issue. Even though the caffeine intake did not exceed the recommended level, consumers should not neglect the other impacts of caffeine on sleeping or overall health. Additionally, consumers should be aware that, while the overall daily caffeine intake is set at 400 mg, a single dose should not exceed 200 mg. We encourage public health specialists to prioritize educating specific groups of the population about safe caffeine intake, particularly pregnant women, individuals with sleeping problems and chronic disease, and young adults.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, L.A.A., A.A.A., and A.S.A.; methodology, L.A.A., A.A.A., and A.S.A.; formal analysis, L.A.A.; investigation, L.A.A.; data curation, L.A.A. and A.A.A.; writing—original draft preparation, L.A.A.; writing—review and editing, A.A.A. and A.S.A.; visualization, L.A.A.; supervision, A.S.A. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

This study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the Saudi Food and Drug Authority Ethics Committee (Approval Code 2022_01, granted on 3 March 2022).

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in this study.

Data Availability Statement

Data used in this study are available upon request from the corresponding author.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Disclosure Statement

The views expressed in this paper are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the SFDA or its stakeholders. Guaranteeing the accuracy and validity of the data is the sole responsibility of the research team.

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Figure 1. This figure illustrates the systematic steps involved in preparing the sample for analysis.
Figure 1. This figure illustrates the systematic steps involved in preparing the sample for analysis.
Beverages 11 00123 g001
Table 1. Summary of the caffeine database concentrations by beverage category.
Table 1. Summary of the caffeine database concentrations by beverage category.
Beverage CategoryCaffeine Concentration (mg/100 mL)
Soft drinks10.24
Sugar-free soft drinks10.24
Iced tea75.47
Sugar-free tea20.02
Sugar and milk tea20.02
Saudi coffee with milk35.69
Saudi coffee without milk40.04
Sugar-free Turkish or espresso coffee38.78
Sweetened Turkish or espresso coffee26.21
Sugar-free black coffee40.04
Sweetened black coffee36.69
Flavored coffee37.73
Sugar-free energy drinks32.00
Sweetened energy drinks25.43
Sports drinks32.00
Table 2. Frequencies of participant characteristics (n = 4367).
Table 2. Frequencies of participant characteristics (n = 4367).
VariableN%
Gender
     Male197045
     Female239756
Age
     18–29134030.7
     30–44204246.8
     45–5991120.9
     +60741
Marital status
     Married274762.9
     Single137631.5
     Divorced/widow225.6
Pregnant/breastfeeding women2445.6
Region
     Riyadh48511.1
     Madinah48011
     Albaha3989.1
     Aseer3638.3
     Makkah3518
     Eastern Province3257.4
     Najran3117.1
     Hail3017
     Jazan3077
     Tabuk3067
     Aljouf2916.7
     AlQassim2626
     Northern Border1874.3
Variable (Min–Max)Mean ± SEMedian
Age (18–65 years)35 ± 0.1636
Weight (40–187 kg)73 ± 0.2771
Table 3. Frequencies of caffeinated beverages consumed by participants (n = 4367).
Table 3. Frequencies of caffeinated beverages consumed by participants (n = 4367).
BeveragesOverall Consumption
N (%)
Pattern of ConsumptionOverall
n
GenderAge Groups
MaleFemale18–2930–4445–59+60
1Saudi coffee3454 (79)Never 91339951436240913012
Daily 173077295835784047342
Weekly 108049658437350618813
Monthly 6443033412302871207
2Soft drinks3274 (75)Never 109350159226850828235
Daily 657367290267314733
Weekly 123856867044658020012
Monthly 137953484535964035624
3Sweetened tea3026 (69.30)Never 134156377841059929636
Daily 131469561930567830922
Weekly 98241756537343316610
Monthly 7302954352583321406
4Unsweetened tea2147 (49.16)Never 22209571245847100636624
Daily 74637437211935125224
Weekly 74333241119337615618
Monthly 6582892692043091378
5Flavored coffee with milk2104 (48.18)Never 226311691094620102556553
Daily 2489315574132384
Weekly 6552494062413091023
Monthly 120145974240557620614
6Unsweetened Turkish coffee or espresso1873 (42.88)Never 249410621432836108152849
Daily 53726327412229011411
Weekly 6032943091673281035
Monthly 7333513822153431669
7Unsweetened black or filtered coffee1850 (42.3)Never 251710551462646115465463
Daily 595311284217279792
Weekly 622308314243309673
Monthly 6332963372342821116
8Diet soft drinks1479 (33.86)Never 288812361652861131066057
Daily 2081208865121202
Weekly 482257225166256573
Monthly 78935743224835517412
9Saudi coffee with milk1363 (31.2)Never 300414171587921136766056
Daily 4861733131292578911
Weekly 476193283159231833
Monthly 401187214131187794
10Sweetened energy drink1033 (23.65)Never 333413991935888156880771
Daily 13971685568151
Weekly 300177123129140310
Monthly 594323271268266582
11Sweetened Turkish coffee or espresso1061 (24.3)Never 3306146818381060150467963
Daily 23010512550122562
Weekly 30414116373170592
Monthly 5272562711572461177
12Iced tea1025 (23.47)Never 334215371805874159880466
Daily 13356775266132
Weekly 342144198156156282
Monthly 650233317258222664
13Black or filtered coffee with milk794 (18.18)Never 3573163319401058164879770
Daily 14767805673180
Weekly 28411217294156322
Monthly 363158205132165642
14Diet energy drink495 (11.33)Never 3872170121711164179084771
Daily 8347362940131
Weekly 16188735490161
Monthly 25113411793122351
15Sport drink 356 (8.15)Never 4011179122201224184986771
Daily 663531203871
Weekly 13868703977202
Monthly 15276765778170
Table 4. Overall intake of caffeine (mg/day) among participants and variation between characteristics (n = 4367).
Table 4. Overall intake of caffeine (mg/day) among participants and variation between characteristics (n = 4367).
N (%)Mean ± SEMedian, IQR (25–75)p Value *
Gender 0.000
     Male1970 (45)145 ± 2.3120 (71–169)
     Female2397 (56)120 ± 1.8104 (51–158)
Region 0.021
     Riyadh485 (11.1)146 ± 4.7120 (70–195)
     Madinah480 (11)126 ± 4.4112 (49–170)
     Albaha398 (9.1)120 ± 4.8103 (44–158)
     Aseer363 (8.3)120 ± 4.7108 (53–168)
     Makkah351 (8)127 ± 5.4101 (50–175)
     Eastern Province325 (7.4)133 ± 5.6166 (57–181)
     Hail301 (7)141 ± 5.3120 (74–193)
     Jazan307 (7)129 ± 5.6120 (58–126)
     Tabuk306 (7)137 ± 5.6120 (63–182)
     Aljouf291 (6.7)144 ± 5.4120 (86–188)
     AlQassim262 (6)139 ± 5.6120 (73–185)
     Northern Border187 (4.3)126 ± 7.1113 (47–182)
     Najran311 (7.1)120 ± 5.3101 (54–155)
Age 0.174
     18–291340 (30.7)135 ± 2.74120 (56.7–182.9)
     30–442042 (46.8)134 ± 2.19120 (61.7–177.5)
     45–59911 (20.9)121.9 ± 2.9104 (53–164)
     +6074 (1)121 ± 10101 (62–155)
Pregnant/breastfeeding women244 (5.6)105 ± 5.298.9 (41–125)-
* p value < 0.05 means a significant difference in the mean caffeine intakes between variables.
Table 5. Mean caffeine intake (mg/day) by beverage category for each category of consumers.
Table 5. Mean caffeine intake (mg/day) by beverage category for each category of consumers.
Beverage CategoryTotal Consumption for Each Category Caffeine Intake (mg/day)
N (%)Mean ± SE
1Saudi Coffee3454 (79)140 ± 1.6
2Soft Drink3274 (75)136 ± 1.68
3Sweetened Tea3026 (69.30)137 ± 1.7
4Unsweetened Tea2147 (49.16)142 ± 2.1
5Flavored Coffee with Milk2104 (48.18)144 ± 2
6Turkish or Espresso without Sugar1873 (42.88)153 ± 2.32
7Black or Filtered Coffee1850 (42.3)169 ± 2.3
8Diet Soft Drink1479 (33.86)150 ± 2.67
9Saudi Coffee with Additives1363 (31.2)141 ± 2.5
10Sweetened Energy Drinks1033 (23.65)165 ± 3.2
11Turkish Coffee or Espresso with Sugar1061 (24.3)151 ± 3
12Iced Tea1025 (23.47)163 ± 3.1
13Black or Filtered Coffee with Milk794 (18.18)164 ± 3.6
14Diet Energy Drinks495 (11.33)169 ± 4.9
15Sport Drinks356 (8.15)169 ± 5.6
Table 6. Caffeine intake of all caffeinated beverages by age group, gender, and pregnant women.
Table 6. Caffeine intake of all caffeinated beverages by age group, gender, and pregnant women.
Age Group (Years)Sample
n (%)
Gender Caffeine Intake (mg/day)HQ
n (%)Mean ± SE (Min–Max)Mean95%
18–291340 (30.7) 135 ± 2.74 (0–451)0.330.34
Male 478 (35.7)145 ± 4.79 (0–445)0.360.38
Female862 (64.3)124 ± 3.28 (0–451)0.300.32
30–442042 (46.8) 134 ± 2.19 (0–456)0.330.34
Male991 (48.5)149 ± 3.3 (0–454)0.370.38
Female1051 (51.5)120 ± 2.8 (0–456)0.300.31
45–59911 (20.9) 121.9 ± 2.9 (0–453)0.300.31
Male455 (49.9)130 ± 4.4 (0–453)0.320.34
Female456 (50.1)113 ± 3.9 (0–448)0.280.29
+6074 (1) 121 ± 10 (0–414)0.300.34
Male46 (62.2)129 ± 12.7 (0–392)0.320.37
Female28 (37.8)108 ± 16 (0–414)0.270.33
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Almutairi, L.A.; Alsayari, A.A.; Alqahtani, A.S. Caffeine Consumption and Risk Assessment Among Adults in Saudi Arabia: A Cross-Sectional Study. Beverages 2025, 11, 123. https://doi.org/10.3390/beverages11040123

AMA Style

Almutairi LA, Alsayari AA, Alqahtani AS. Caffeine Consumption and Risk Assessment Among Adults in Saudi Arabia: A Cross-Sectional Study. Beverages. 2025; 11(4):123. https://doi.org/10.3390/beverages11040123

Chicago/Turabian Style

Almutairi, Lulu A., Abdullah A. Alsayari, and Amani S. Alqahtani. 2025. "Caffeine Consumption and Risk Assessment Among Adults in Saudi Arabia: A Cross-Sectional Study" Beverages 11, no. 4: 123. https://doi.org/10.3390/beverages11040123

APA Style

Almutairi, L. A., Alsayari, A. A., & Alqahtani, A. S. (2025). Caffeine Consumption and Risk Assessment Among Adults in Saudi Arabia: A Cross-Sectional Study. Beverages, 11(4), 123. https://doi.org/10.3390/beverages11040123

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