Caffeine Consumption and Risk Assessment Among Adults in Saudi Arabia: A Cross-Sectional Study
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design
2.2. Sample/Inclusion Criteria
2.3. Variables
2.3.1. Caffeinated Beverage Consumption Data
2.3.2. Caffeine Concentration in Caffeinated Beverages
2.3.3. Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI) of Caffeine
2.4. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Description of the Tested Group
3.2. Pattern of Caffeinated Beverage Consumption
3.3. Caffeine Intake
3.4. Risk Assessment of Caffeine
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Disclosure Statement
References
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Beverage Category | Caffeine Concentration (mg/100 mL) |
---|---|
Soft drinks | 10.24 |
Sugar-free soft drinks | 10.24 |
Iced tea | 75.47 |
Sugar-free tea | 20.02 |
Sugar and milk tea | 20.02 |
Saudi coffee with milk | 35.69 |
Saudi coffee without milk | 40.04 |
Sugar-free Turkish or espresso coffee | 38.78 |
Sweetened Turkish or espresso coffee | 26.21 |
Sugar-free black coffee | 40.04 |
Sweetened black coffee | 36.69 |
Flavored coffee | 37.73 |
Sugar-free energy drinks | 32.00 |
Sweetened energy drinks | 25.43 |
Sports drinks | 32.00 |
Variable | N | % |
---|---|---|
Gender | ||
Male | 1970 | 45 |
Female | 2397 | 56 |
Age | ||
18–29 | 1340 | 30.7 |
30–44 | 2042 | 46.8 |
45–59 | 911 | 20.9 |
+60 | 74 | 1 |
Marital status | ||
Married | 2747 | 62.9 |
Single | 1376 | 31.5 |
Divorced/widow | 22 | 5.6 |
Pregnant/breastfeeding women | 244 | 5.6 |
Region | ||
Riyadh | 485 | 11.1 |
Madinah | 480 | 11 |
Albaha | 398 | 9.1 |
Aseer | 363 | 8.3 |
Makkah | 351 | 8 |
Eastern Province | 325 | 7.4 |
Najran | 311 | 7.1 |
Hail | 301 | 7 |
Jazan | 307 | 7 |
Tabuk | 306 | 7 |
Aljouf | 291 | 6.7 |
AlQassim | 262 | 6 |
Northern Border | 187 | 4.3 |
Variable (Min–Max) | Mean ± SE | Median |
Age (18–65 years) | 35 ± 0.16 | 36 |
Weight (40–187 kg) | 73 ± 0.27 | 71 |
Beverages | Overall Consumption N (%) | Pattern of Consumption | Overall n | Gender | Age Groups | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Male | Female | 18–29 | 30–44 | 45–59 | +60 | |||||
1 | Saudi coffee | 3454 (79) | Never | 913 | 399 | 514 | 362 | 409 | 130 | 12 |
Daily | 1730 | 772 | 958 | 357 | 840 | 473 | 42 | |||
Weekly | 1080 | 496 | 584 | 373 | 506 | 188 | 13 | |||
Monthly | 644 | 303 | 341 | 230 | 287 | 120 | 7 | |||
2 | Soft drinks | 3274 (75) | Never | 1093 | 501 | 592 | 268 | 508 | 282 | 35 |
Daily | 657 | 367 | 290 | 267 | 314 | 73 | 3 | |||
Weekly | 1238 | 568 | 670 | 446 | 580 | 200 | 12 | |||
Monthly | 1379 | 534 | 845 | 359 | 640 | 356 | 24 | |||
3 | Sweetened tea | 3026 (69.30) | Never | 1341 | 563 | 778 | 410 | 599 | 296 | 36 |
Daily | 1314 | 695 | 619 | 305 | 678 | 309 | 22 | |||
Weekly | 982 | 417 | 565 | 373 | 433 | 166 | 10 | |||
Monthly | 730 | 295 | 435 | 258 | 332 | 140 | 6 | |||
4 | Unsweetened tea | 2147 (49.16) | Never | 2220 | 957 | 1245 | 847 | 1006 | 366 | 24 |
Daily | 746 | 374 | 372 | 119 | 351 | 252 | 24 | |||
Weekly | 743 | 332 | 411 | 193 | 376 | 156 | 18 | |||
Monthly | 658 | 289 | 269 | 204 | 309 | 137 | 8 | |||
5 | Flavored coffee with milk | 2104 (48.18) | Never | 2263 | 1169 | 1094 | 620 | 1025 | 565 | 53 |
Daily | 248 | 93 | 155 | 74 | 132 | 38 | 4 | |||
Weekly | 655 | 249 | 406 | 241 | 309 | 102 | 3 | |||
Monthly | 1201 | 459 | 742 | 405 | 576 | 206 | 14 | |||
6 | Unsweetened Turkish coffee or espresso | 1873 (42.88) | Never | 2494 | 1062 | 1432 | 836 | 1081 | 528 | 49 |
Daily | 537 | 263 | 274 | 122 | 290 | 114 | 11 | |||
Weekly | 603 | 294 | 309 | 167 | 328 | 103 | 5 | |||
Monthly | 733 | 351 | 382 | 215 | 343 | 166 | 9 | |||
7 | Unsweetened black or filtered coffee | 1850 (42.3) | Never | 2517 | 1055 | 1462 | 646 | 1154 | 654 | 63 |
Daily | 595 | 311 | 284 | 217 | 279 | 79 | 2 | |||
Weekly | 622 | 308 | 314 | 243 | 309 | 67 | 3 | |||
Monthly | 633 | 296 | 337 | 234 | 282 | 111 | 6 | |||
8 | Diet soft drinks | 1479 (33.86) | Never | 2888 | 1236 | 1652 | 861 | 1310 | 660 | 57 |
Daily | 208 | 120 | 88 | 65 | 121 | 20 | 2 | |||
Weekly | 482 | 257 | 225 | 166 | 256 | 57 | 3 | |||
Monthly | 789 | 357 | 432 | 248 | 355 | 174 | 12 | |||
9 | Saudi coffee with milk | 1363 (31.2) | Never | 3004 | 1417 | 1587 | 921 | 1367 | 660 | 56 |
Daily | 486 | 173 | 313 | 129 | 257 | 89 | 11 | |||
Weekly | 476 | 193 | 283 | 159 | 231 | 83 | 3 | |||
Monthly | 401 | 187 | 214 | 131 | 187 | 79 | 4 | |||
10 | Sweetened energy drink | 1033 (23.65) | Never | 3334 | 1399 | 1935 | 888 | 1568 | 807 | 71 |
Daily | 139 | 71 | 68 | 55 | 68 | 15 | 1 | |||
Weekly | 300 | 177 | 123 | 129 | 140 | 31 | 0 | |||
Monthly | 594 | 323 | 271 | 268 | 266 | 58 | 2 | |||
11 | Sweetened Turkish coffee or espresso | 1061 (24.3) | Never | 3306 | 1468 | 1838 | 1060 | 1504 | 679 | 63 |
Daily | 230 | 105 | 125 | 50 | 122 | 56 | 2 | |||
Weekly | 304 | 141 | 163 | 73 | 170 | 59 | 2 | |||
Monthly | 527 | 256 | 271 | 157 | 246 | 117 | 7 | |||
12 | Iced tea | 1025 (23.47) | Never | 3342 | 1537 | 1805 | 874 | 1598 | 804 | 66 |
Daily | 133 | 56 | 77 | 52 | 66 | 13 | 2 | |||
Weekly | 342 | 144 | 198 | 156 | 156 | 28 | 2 | |||
Monthly | 650 | 233 | 317 | 258 | 222 | 66 | 4 | |||
13 | Black or filtered coffee with milk | 794 (18.18) | Never | 3573 | 1633 | 1940 | 1058 | 1648 | 797 | 70 |
Daily | 147 | 67 | 80 | 56 | 73 | 18 | 0 | |||
Weekly | 284 | 112 | 172 | 94 | 156 | 32 | 2 | |||
Monthly | 363 | 158 | 205 | 132 | 165 | 64 | 2 | |||
14 | Diet energy drink | 495 (11.33) | Never | 3872 | 1701 | 2171 | 1164 | 1790 | 847 | 71 |
Daily | 83 | 47 | 36 | 29 | 40 | 13 | 1 | |||
Weekly | 161 | 88 | 73 | 54 | 90 | 16 | 1 | |||
Monthly | 251 | 134 | 117 | 93 | 122 | 35 | 1 | |||
15 | Sport drink | 356 (8.15) | Never | 4011 | 1791 | 2220 | 1224 | 1849 | 867 | 71 |
Daily | 66 | 35 | 31 | 20 | 38 | 7 | 1 | |||
Weekly | 138 | 68 | 70 | 39 | 77 | 20 | 2 | |||
Monthly | 152 | 76 | 76 | 57 | 78 | 17 | 0 |
N (%) | Mean ± SE | Median, IQR (25–75) | p Value * | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Gender | 0.000 | |||
Male | 1970 (45) | 145 ± 2.3 | 120 (71–169) | |
Female | 2397 (56) | 120 ± 1.8 | 104 (51–158) | |
Region | 0.021 | |||
Riyadh | 485 (11.1) | 146 ± 4.7 | 120 (70–195) | |
Madinah | 480 (11) | 126 ± 4.4 | 112 (49–170) | |
Albaha | 398 (9.1) | 120 ± 4.8 | 103 (44–158) | |
Aseer | 363 (8.3) | 120 ± 4.7 | 108 (53–168) | |
Makkah | 351 (8) | 127 ± 5.4 | 101 (50–175) | |
Eastern Province | 325 (7.4) | 133 ± 5.6 | 166 (57–181) | |
Hail | 301 (7) | 141 ± 5.3 | 120 (74–193) | |
Jazan | 307 (7) | 129 ± 5.6 | 120 (58–126) | |
Tabuk | 306 (7) | 137 ± 5.6 | 120 (63–182) | |
Aljouf | 291 (6.7) | 144 ± 5.4 | 120 (86–188) | |
AlQassim | 262 (6) | 139 ± 5.6 | 120 (73–185) | |
Northern Border | 187 (4.3) | 126 ± 7.1 | 113 (47–182) | |
Najran | 311 (7.1) | 120 ± 5.3 | 101 (54–155) | |
Age | 0.174 | |||
18–29 | 1340 (30.7) | 135 ± 2.74 | 120 (56.7–182.9) | |
30–44 | 2042 (46.8) | 134 ± 2.19 | 120 (61.7–177.5) | |
45–59 | 911 (20.9) | 121.9 ± 2.9 | 104 (53–164) | |
+60 | 74 (1) | 121 ± 10 | 101 (62–155) | |
Pregnant/breastfeeding women | 244 (5.6) | 105 ± 5.2 | 98.9 (41–125) | - |
Beverage Category | Total Consumption for Each Category | Caffeine Intake (mg/day) | |
---|---|---|---|
N (%) | Mean ± SE | ||
1 | Saudi Coffee | 3454 (79) | 140 ± 1.6 |
2 | Soft Drink | 3274 (75) | 136 ± 1.68 |
3 | Sweetened Tea | 3026 (69.30) | 137 ± 1.7 |
4 | Unsweetened Tea | 2147 (49.16) | 142 ± 2.1 |
5 | Flavored Coffee with Milk | 2104 (48.18) | 144 ± 2 |
6 | Turkish or Espresso without Sugar | 1873 (42.88) | 153 ± 2.32 |
7 | Black or Filtered Coffee | 1850 (42.3) | 169 ± 2.3 |
8 | Diet Soft Drink | 1479 (33.86) | 150 ± 2.67 |
9 | Saudi Coffee with Additives | 1363 (31.2) | 141 ± 2.5 |
10 | Sweetened Energy Drinks | 1033 (23.65) | 165 ± 3.2 |
11 | Turkish Coffee or Espresso with Sugar | 1061 (24.3) | 151 ± 3 |
12 | Iced Tea | 1025 (23.47) | 163 ± 3.1 |
13 | Black or Filtered Coffee with Milk | 794 (18.18) | 164 ± 3.6 |
14 | Diet Energy Drinks | 495 (11.33) | 169 ± 4.9 |
15 | Sport Drinks | 356 (8.15) | 169 ± 5.6 |
Age Group (Years) | Sample n (%) | Gender | Caffeine Intake (mg/day) | HQ | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
n (%) | Mean ± SE (Min–Max) | Mean | 95% | |||
18–29 | 1340 (30.7) | 135 ± 2.74 (0–451) | 0.33 | 0.34 | ||
Male | 478 (35.7) | 145 ± 4.79 (0–445) | 0.36 | 0.38 | ||
Female | 862 (64.3) | 124 ± 3.28 (0–451) | 0.30 | 0.32 | ||
30–44 | 2042 (46.8) | 134 ± 2.19 (0–456) | 0.33 | 0.34 | ||
Male | 991 (48.5) | 149 ± 3.3 (0–454) | 0.37 | 0.38 | ||
Female | 1051 (51.5) | 120 ± 2.8 (0–456) | 0.30 | 0.31 | ||
45–59 | 911 (20.9) | 121.9 ± 2.9 (0–453) | 0.30 | 0.31 | ||
Male | 455 (49.9) | 130 ± 4.4 (0–453) | 0.32 | 0.34 | ||
Female | 456 (50.1) | 113 ± 3.9 (0–448) | 0.28 | 0.29 | ||
+60 | 74 (1) | 121 ± 10 (0–414) | 0.30 | 0.34 | ||
Male | 46 (62.2) | 129 ± 12.7 (0–392) | 0.32 | 0.37 | ||
Female | 28 (37.8) | 108 ± 16 (0–414) | 0.27 | 0.33 |
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Almutairi, L.A.; Alsayari, A.A.; Alqahtani, A.S. Caffeine Consumption and Risk Assessment Among Adults in Saudi Arabia: A Cross-Sectional Study. Beverages 2025, 11, 123. https://doi.org/10.3390/beverages11040123
Almutairi LA, Alsayari AA, Alqahtani AS. Caffeine Consumption and Risk Assessment Among Adults in Saudi Arabia: A Cross-Sectional Study. Beverages. 2025; 11(4):123. https://doi.org/10.3390/beverages11040123
Chicago/Turabian StyleAlmutairi, Lulu A., Abdullah A. Alsayari, and Amani S. Alqahtani. 2025. "Caffeine Consumption and Risk Assessment Among Adults in Saudi Arabia: A Cross-Sectional Study" Beverages 11, no. 4: 123. https://doi.org/10.3390/beverages11040123
APA StyleAlmutairi, L. A., Alsayari, A. A., & Alqahtani, A. S. (2025). Caffeine Consumption and Risk Assessment Among Adults in Saudi Arabia: A Cross-Sectional Study. Beverages, 11(4), 123. https://doi.org/10.3390/beverages11040123