Multi-Analysis Characterization of Makgeolli Made from the Novel Glutinous Rice Cultivar ‘Gureumchal’: Free Amino Acids, GC–MS Volatiles, and Electronic Tongue-Derived Flavor Profile

Heo, Su-Hyeon; Lee, Su-Hyun; Lee, Jong-Hyeon; Kang, Jungmin; Kim, Yeonghun; Jung, Hyun Mo; Lee, Myung Hee; Cho, Jeong-Seok; Lee, Sae-Byuk

doi:10.3390/foods15030586

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Multi-Analysis Characterization of Makgeolli Made from the Novel Glutinous Rice Cultivar ‘Gureumchal’: Free Amino Acids, GC–MS Volatiles, and Electronic Tongue-Derived Flavor Profile

by

Su-Hyeon Heo

^1,2,†,

Su-Hyun Lee

^1,†,

Jong-Hyeon Lee

¹,

Jungmin Kang

¹,

Yeonghun Kim

¹,

Hyun Mo Jung

³,

Myung Hee Lee

³,

Jeong-Seok Cho

^4,* and

Sae-Byuk Lee

^1,5,*

¹

School of Food Science and Biotechnology, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41566, Republic of Korea

²

Gyeongsangbuk-do Provincial Agricultural Research & Extension Services, Daegu 41404, Republic of Korea

³

Division of High-Tech Agricultural Industry, Kyongbuk Science University, Chilgok 39913, Republic of Korea

⁴

Smart Food Manufacturing Research Group, Korea Food Research Institute, Wanju-gun 55365, Republic of Korea

⁵

Institute of Fermentation Biotechnology, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41566, Republic of Korea

^*

Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.

^†

These authors contributed equally to this work.

Foods 2026, 15(3), 586; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods15030586

Submission received: 23 December 2025 / Revised: 26 January 2026 / Accepted: 3 February 2026 / Published: 5 February 2026

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Fermentation Biotechnology in Food Science)

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Abstract

This study evaluated the suitability of a new glutinous rice cultivar of Gureumchal as a raw material for Makgeolli, a traditional Korean rice wine, by comparing Makgeolli produced from Gureumchal with those made from a non-glutinous rice and another glutinous rice cultivar. Makgeolli was prepared using single and blended rice combinations, and their physicochemical characteristics, amino acids, volatile aromatic compounds, and E-tongue were analyzed. The Gureumchal produced generally higher levels of total amino acids and ester compounds, particularly fruity esters, when compared with the other rice formulations. A volatile aromatic compound analysis indicated that non-glutinous rice favored the formation of acetate esters typically associated with the acetyl-CoA pathway, whereas Gureumchal produced higher levels of fruity acyl-CoA-derived esters, such as ethyl hexanoate and ethyl octanoate. An E-tongue analysis further demonstrated that rice type strongly shaped the Makgeolli’s taste profile: glutinous rice samples, including Gureumchal, exhibited higher sweetness but low umami, whereas non-glutinous rice produced higher acidity and umami. Blended samples confirmed that manipulating the proportion of glutinous and non-glutinous rice allows the systematic adjustment of taste balance. Overall, Gureumchal formed a distinct flavor profile characterized by fruity esters and pronounced sweetness, indicating its potential to diversify Makgeolli quality and support targeted flavor design.

Keywords: glutinous rice; Makgeolli; free amino acids; volatile aromatic compounds; E-tongue

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MDPI and ACS Style

Heo, S.-H.; Lee, S.-H.; Lee, J.-H.; Kang, J.; Kim, Y.; Jung, H.M.; Lee, M.H.; Cho, J.-S.; Lee, S.-B. Multi-Analysis Characterization of Makgeolli Made from the Novel Glutinous Rice Cultivar ‘Gureumchal’: Free Amino Acids, GC–MS Volatiles, and Electronic Tongue-Derived Flavor Profile. Foods 2026, 15, 586. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods15030586

AMA Style

Heo S-H, Lee S-H, Lee J-H, Kang J, Kim Y, Jung HM, Lee MH, Cho J-S, Lee S-B. Multi-Analysis Characterization of Makgeolli Made from the Novel Glutinous Rice Cultivar ‘Gureumchal’: Free Amino Acids, GC–MS Volatiles, and Electronic Tongue-Derived Flavor Profile. Foods. 2026; 15(3):586. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods15030586

Chicago/Turabian Style

Heo, Su-Hyeon, Su-Hyun Lee, Jong-Hyeon Lee, Jungmin Kang, Yeonghun Kim, Hyun Mo Jung, Myung Hee Lee, Jeong-Seok Cho, and Sae-Byuk Lee. 2026. "Multi-Analysis Characterization of Makgeolli Made from the Novel Glutinous Rice Cultivar ‘Gureumchal’: Free Amino Acids, GC–MS Volatiles, and Electronic Tongue-Derived Flavor Profile" Foods 15, no. 3: 586. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods15030586

APA Style

Heo, S.-H., Lee, S.-H., Lee, J.-H., Kang, J., Kim, Y., Jung, H. M., Lee, M. H., Cho, J.-S., & Lee, S.-B. (2026). Multi-Analysis Characterization of Makgeolli Made from the Novel Glutinous Rice Cultivar ‘Gureumchal’: Free Amino Acids, GC–MS Volatiles, and Electronic Tongue-Derived Flavor Profile. Foods, 15(3), 586. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods15030586

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Multi-Analysis Characterization of Makgeolli Made from the Novel Glutinous Rice Cultivar ‘Gureumchal’: Free Amino Acids, GC–MS Volatiles, and Electronic Tongue-Derived Flavor Profile

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