Factors Driving Individuals’ Attitudes toward Sugar and Sweet-Tasting Foods: An Analysis within the Scope of Theory of Planned Behavior
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Participants
2.2. Evaluation of Factors Affecting Sugar Intake Behavior
2.3. Evaluation of Sociodemographic and Lifestyle Characteristics and Health Status
2.4. Sugar Intake Estimation
2.5. Evaluation of Sugar-Sweetened Beverage (SSB) Intake
2.6. Statistical Analysis
Variable | Items |
---|---|
Habit [30] | HA1: consuming foods and drinks high in free sugar as part of my daily diet is something I automatically perform. HA2: consuming foods and drinks high in free sugar as part of my daily diet is something I perform without having to consciously remember. HA3: consuming foods and drinks high in free sugar as part of my daily diet is something I perform without thinking. HA4: consuming foods and drinks high in free sugar as part of my daily diet is something I start to perform before I realize I am performing it. |
Subjective norm [19] | SN1: most individuals who are significant to me would approve of me consuming foods and drinks high in free sugar as part of my daily diet. SN2: most individuals whose opinions I value believe that I should consume foods and drinks high in free sugar as part of my daily diet. SN3: most individuals who are significant to me are consuming foods and drinks high in free sugar as part of their daily diet. |
Perceived behavioral control [19,31] | PBC1: it is mostly up to me whether I consume foods and drinks high in free sugar as part of my daily diet. PBC2: it would be possible for me to consume foods and drinks high in free sugar as part of my daily diet. PBC3: I have complete control over whether I consume foods and drinks high in free sugar as part of my daily diet. PBC4: if I wanted to, I could easily consume foods and drinks high in free sugar as part of my daily diet. |
Intention [19] | IN1: I intend to consume foods and drinks high in free sugar as part of my daily diet in the next month. IN2: I expect to consume foods and drinks high in free sugar as part of my daily diet in the next month. IN3: it is likely that I will consume foods and drinks high in free sugar as part of my daily diet in the next month. |
Self-control [32] | SC1: I have difficulty starting tasks. SC2: I immediately perform my chores. SC3: I find it difficult to get down to work. SC4: I am always prepared. SC5: I frequently waste my time. SC6: I start tasks right away. SC7: I tend to postpone decisions. SC8: I like to get to work at once. SC9: I need a push to get started. SC10: I tend to carry out my plans. |
Personal impact [16] | PI1: I tend to crave sweet foods. PI2: I tend to crave sugars. PI3: I tend to crave sweeteners (removed). PI4: I want to reduce my sweet food intake. PI5: the presence or absence of sweet foods in my diet influences my mood. PI6: the presence or absence of sugars in my diet influences my mood. PI7: the presence or absence of sweeteners in my diet influences my mood (removed). PI8: I feel indifferent toward sweet foods. PI9: the sweet taste is physically addictive. PI10: sugar is physically addictive. |
Personal management [16] | PM1: when I consume sugars, I balance out my diet through exercising and/or eating other healthy foods. PM2: when I consume sweeteners, I balance out my diet through exercising and/or eating other healthy foods. PM3: when I consume sweet foods, I balance out my diet through exercising and/or eating other healthy foods. PM4: my preference and/or intake of sugars depends on how much knowledge I have on them. PM5: my preference and/or intake of sweeteners depends on how much knowledge I have on them. PM6: I only consume sweet foods during special occasions. PM7: I only consume sugars during special occasions. PM8: I only consume sweeteners during special occasions. PM9: I categorize my sweet food intake into either “special” or “normal”. PM10: my health or body image will determine whether I modify my sugar intake or not. PM11: my health or body image will determine whether I modify my sweet food intake or not. PM12: my health or body image will determine whether I modify my sweetener intake or not. PM13: individuals who I am with (family, friends, and colleagues) influence my sweetener intake (removed). |
Apathy [16] | AP1: individuals are highly concerned about cutting down on sweet foods. AP2: individuals are highly concerned about cutting down on sugars. AP3: individuals are highly concerned about cutting down on sweeteners. AP4: sugar is not as bad as fat for your health (removed). AP5: adding sugar in food products is unnecessary. |
Negativity [16] | NE1: sweeteners are worse for your health than salt. NE2: sweeteners are physically addictive. NE3: sweeteners are not as bad as fat for your health (removed). NE4: adding sweeteners in food products is unnecessary. NE5: I feel guilty whenever I consume sweeteners. NE6: labels are misleading and deceptive. NE7: the food environment hinders me from reducing my sweetener intake. |
Perceived understanding [14] | PU1: I know where to find credible information on sugars. PU2: I know where to find credible information on sweet foods. PU3: I know where to find credible information on sweeteners. PU4: If someone asks me, “what are sweeteners?”, I can explain. PU5: If someone asks me, “what is sugar?”, I can explain. PU6: I do not know whether to consume sugars or sweeteners (removed). PU7: I know how to replace sugars with sweeteners in cooking/baking. PU8: I know what strategies or policies have been implemented for reducing sugar intake in Turkiye. |
Perceived nonautonomy [33] | PNA1: The desire or need for sweet food changes with age. PNA2: The desire or need for sugar changes with age. PNA3: The desire or need for sweeteners changes with age. PNA4: Completely eliminating sugar from my diet is impossible (removed). PNA5: Completely eliminating sweet food from my diet is impossible (removed). |
Attitude [34] | ATT1: Consuming less sugary foods/drinks is a good thing for me. |
ATT2: Consuming less sugary foods/drinks is a healthy thing for me. | |
ATT3: Consuming less sugary foods/drinks is something I enjoy. | |
ATT4: Consuming less sugary foods/drinks is something I effortlessly perform. | |
ATT5: Consuming less sugary foods/drinks is a delicious thing for me. | |
ATT6: Consuming less sugary foods/drinks is something that is valuable to me. |
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Characteristic | x− ± SD or % (N) |
---|---|
Sex | |
Woman | 93.19 (876) |
Man | 6.81 (64) |
Age (years) | 34.95 ± 9.89 |
Education level | |
Primary/secondary school | 0.8 (7) |
High school | 7.42 (65) |
Associate degree | 2.28 (20) |
Bachelor degree | 59.25 (519) |
MSc and Ph.D. | 30.25 (265) |
Marital status | |
Single | 42.81 (375) |
Married | 57.19 (503) |
Income | |
Student and pocket money | 9.47 (83) |
Below the minimum wage | 8.22 (72) |
TL 17,000–27,000 | 17.92 (157) |
TL 27,001–37,000 | 8.33 (73) |
TL 3700–47,000 | 10.39 (91) |
TL > 47,000 | 45.66 (400) |
Smoking | |
No | 74.2 (650) |
Yes | 25.8 (226) |
Regular alcohol intake | |
No | 85.73 (751) |
Yes | 14.27 (125) |
Exercise 150 min a week | |
No | 61.42 (538) |
Yes | 38.58 (338) |
Food allergy | |
No | 83.22 (729) |
Yes | 16.78 (147) |
BMI | 24.82 ± 4.95 |
Total sugar intake | 30.91 ± 12.87 |
Adding honey | 1.42 ± 1.11 |
Adding LNCS | 5.97 ± 3.39 |
Sweetened beverage intake (kcal) | 98.16 ± 180.92 |
Dependent ← Independent | β | SE | z-Value | p | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Baseline Model | ATT ← HA | −0.243 | 0.064 | −3.780 | <0.001 *** |
ATT ← SN | −0.140 | 0.039 | −3.551 | <0.001 *** | |
ATT ← PBC | −0.138 | 0.035 | −3.881 | <0.001 *** | |
ATT ← SC | 0.033 | 0.010 | 3.267 | 0.001 ** | |
ATT ← PI | 0.015 | 0.009 | 1.663 | 0.096 | |
ATT ← AP | 0.560 | 0.155 | 3.602 | <0.001 *** | |
ATT ← NE | 0.417 | 0.088 | 4.739 | <0.001 *** | |
ATT ← PU | −1.270 | 0.299 | −4.248 | <0.001 *** | |
ATT ← PNA | 1.035 | 0.217 | 4.765 | <0.001 *** | |
IN ← ATT | −1.622 | 0.412 | −3.935 | <0.001 *** | |
TSI ← IN | 1.489 | 0.252 | 5.920 | <0.001 *** | |
TSI ← ATT | −0.071 | 0.165 | −0.431 | 0.666 | |
TSI ← IN ← ATT | −2.414 | 0.737 | −3.276 | 0.001 ** | |
Predictive Adjustments | IN ← PU | −2.016 | 0.454 | −4.446 | <0.001 *** |
IN ← PNA | 1.709 | 0.429 | 3.988 | <0.001 *** | |
IN ← NE | 0.658 | 0.180 | 3.651 | <0.001 *** | |
IN ← AP | 0.880 | 0.266 | 3.307 | 0.001 ** | |
PU ← ATT | 1.991 | 0.147 | 13.509 | <0.001 *** | |
PU ← HA | 0.219 | 0.076 | 2.868 | 0.004 ** | |
TSI ← PI | 0.358 | 0.074 | 4.820 | <0.001 *** |
Independent → Dependent | β | SE | t-Value | Std. β | p |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
X → M | −0.107 | 0.024 | −4.395 | −0.142 | <0.001 *** |
M → Y | 0.717 | 0.118 | 6.102 | 0.196 | <0.001 *** |
X(c’) →Y | −0.209 | 0.089 | −2.360 | −0.076 | 0.018 * |
X → M → Ya | −0.077 | 0.025 | −3.080 | −0.028 | 0.002 ** |
X → M → Y + c’ | −0.286 | 0.090 | −3.199 | −0.104 | 0.001 ** |
Model 1 | β | SE | t | %95 Lower | %95 Upper | p | |
(Intercept) | 29.733 | 2.298 | 12.936 | 25.228 | 34.237 | <0.001 | |
Sex | 1.958 | 1.385 | 1.414 | −0.757 | 4.672 | 0.157 | |
Age | −0.035 | 0.039 | −0.904 | −0.112 | 0.041 | 0.366 | |
Education Level | 0.229 | 0.431 | 0.531 | −0.616 | 1.074 | 0.596 | |
Marital Status | 1.118 | 0.779 | 1.435 | −0.409 | 2.645 | 0.151 | |
Occupation | −0.148 | 0.272 | −0.544 | −0.680 | 0.385 | 0.587 | |
Income | 0.292 | 0.199 | 1.464 | −0.099 | 0.682 | 0.143 | |
Smoking | 0.029 | 0.779 | 0.037 | −1.497 | 1.555 | 0.970 | |
Regular Alcohol Intake | −0.511 | 0.957 | −0.534 | −2.385 | 1.364 | 0.593 | |
Exercise 150 min A Week | 0.229 | 0.704 | 0.326 | −1.151 | 1.610 | 0.745 | |
Change In Dietary Habits In The Last 12 Months | −0.790 | 0.488 | −1.618 | −1.747 | 0.167 | 0.106 | |
Health Problem | −1.011 | 0.905 | −1.117 | −2.784 | 0.762 | 0.264 | |
Food Allergy | −2.888 | 0.934 | −3.090 | −4.719 | −1.056 | 0.002 * | |
Currently Diet | 1.052 | 0.753 | 1.397 | −0.423 | 2.527 | 0.162 | |
Model 2 | β | SE | Std. β | t | %95 Lower | %95 Upper | p |
(intercept) | 0.052 | 0.036 | 1.463 | −0.018 | 0.122 | 0.144 | |
food allergy ref: no (0) | −0.303 | 0.086 | −0.114 | −3.525 | −0.471 | −0.134 | <0.001 * |
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Kural Enç, H.P.; Kahrıman, M.; Gençalp, C.; Yılmaz, S.; Köse, G.; Baş, M. Factors Driving Individuals’ Attitudes toward Sugar and Sweet-Tasting Foods: An Analysis within the Scope of Theory of Planned Behavior. Foods 2024, 13, 3109. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13193109
Kural Enç HP, Kahrıman M, Gençalp C, Yılmaz S, Köse G, Baş M. Factors Driving Individuals’ Attitudes toward Sugar and Sweet-Tasting Foods: An Analysis within the Scope of Theory of Planned Behavior. Foods. 2024; 13(19):3109. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13193109
Chicago/Turabian StyleKural Enç, Hatice Pınar, Meryem Kahrıman, Cansu Gençalp, Salim Yılmaz, Gizem Köse, and Murat Baş. 2024. "Factors Driving Individuals’ Attitudes toward Sugar and Sweet-Tasting Foods: An Analysis within the Scope of Theory of Planned Behavior" Foods 13, no. 19: 3109. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13193109