The Effect of Daily Meditative Practices Based on Mindfulness and Self-Compassion on Emotional Distress under Stressful Conditions: A Randomized Controlled Trial
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Participants
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- Age 18 years old or over;
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- Acceptable internet connectivity;
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- Not receiving (psychological or psychiatric) treatment for a mental disorder;
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- Not having a serious physical problem;
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- Not practicing mindfulness or SC at the time of the study;
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- No regular or professional practice of meditation.
2.2. Instruments
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- Sociodemographic data. sex, academic background, employment status, physical problems in the last two weeks, previous history of mental disorders and previous experience with meditation;
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- Depression, anxiety and stress scale-21 [28]. This is the short version of a self-administered scale measuring depression, anxiety and stress, with seven items per subscale. The depression scale assesses dysphoria, hopelessness, devaluation of life, self-deprecation, lack of interest/involvement, anhedonia and inertia. The anxiety scale assesses autonomic arousal, skeletal muscle effects, situational anxiety and subjective experience of anxious affect. The stress scale is sensitive to levels of chronic non-specific arousal. It assesses difficulty relaxing, nervous arousal, and being easily upset/agitated, irritable/over-reactive and impatient. Scores for depression, anxiety and stress are calculated by summing the scores for the relevant items. The instrument is answered on a four-point Likert scale ranging from 0 (nothing) to 3 (a lot). Original internal consistencies (i.e., Cronbach’s alpha) were high: 0.86 for anxiety, 0.93 for depression, and 0.91 for stress. Our sample had the following coefficients: anxiety (0.83), depression (0.89) and stress (0.84). The Spanish adaptation was used [29].
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- Self-compassion scale—Short Form [30]. This is a short 12-item instrument extracted from the original SCS measure [31] that is answered on a five-point Likert scale from 1 (hardly ever) to 5 (almost always). The scale covers the three self-compassion dimensions: self-kindness versus self-judgment, common humanity versus isolation, and mindfulness versus over-identification. This short form has obtained adequate psychometric properties, generally with a Cronbach’s alphas higher than 0.80 [32]. Our participants had a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of 0.83 for SCS-SF total scores. According to the three dimensions, self-kindness/self-judgment obtained an alpha = 0.68, common humanity/isolation, 0.77, and mindfulness/over-identification, 0.71. We used the Spanish adaptation of the scale [33].
2.3. Design
2.4. Procedure
2.5. Ethics
2.6. Data Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
- (i)
- This intervention was conducted during the hardest time of the coronavirus pandemic. There are data supporting the pervasive effects of those moments on mental health, with different social contexts and personal conditions (e.g., [42,43,44,45]). The pandemic was a greater stressor than any possible psychosocial interventions, to the extent that, once the intervention ended, the harmful effects of the pandemic were observed again. Our data agree with this explanation; while stress levels tended to decrease both in the intervention and control groups—perhaps due to a tendency to adapt to the initial stressful effect of the pandemic—anxiety and depression returned to their initial levels. Previous data support this stronger effect of intense and prolonged stressful events (e.g., [46]). In these cases, a systematic follow-up with complementary reminder intervention sessions might be particularly useful. Although our study included a follow-up, importantly, both a dose–response relationship and an extinction of the effect of meditation after ceasing the practice have been reported [22,23,24];
- (ii)
- Participants belonged to a non-clinical community sample. Initially, they were worried about the potential emotional impact of the pandemic, but this did not imply they had an emotional disorder. All the mean scores of participants in the pre-intervention phase indicated a mild level of depression, anxiety or stress, far from the scores obtained by Spanish mental health patients in the DASS-21 scale [47]. The re-analysis of data efficacy [10,23] has shown a better result with clinical samples compared to non-clinical ones (e.g., [48,49]), including online interventions (e.g., [50]). This could imply that SC intervention programs are effective but are especially so in participants with more serious psychological conditions, which could also imply greater adherence and maintenance of gains. As experts have pointed out, seeking mental health help can be understood as a first act of compassion [2,51];
- (iii)
- The third reason is a methodological issue. The discrepancy can be attributable to several methodological differences between our program and, e.g., MBSR or MSC (program duration, session duration, type of practice, etc.). In a strict sense, those comparisons cannot be carried out, except as a tendency analysis.
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Mindfulness | Self-Compassion | Mindfulness/Self-Compassion |
---|---|---|
1. Brief theoretical concepts on posture and meditation. Conscious breathing. 3. Seated meditations: sitting with the breath, and sitting with the breath and the body. 5. Meditation: body scan. 7. Practice: feet soles for rooting. 9. Walking meditation. 15. Meditation: the lake. 19. Meditation: the mountain. 25. Exercise: the raisins. 27. Practice: surfing the waves. 30. Meditation: Resting from worries | 4. Meditation: a cell. 6. Meditation: loving kindness to a loved one. 8. Meditation: creating a safe place. 10. Meditation: loving kindness to ourselves. 12. Meditation: the compassionate friend. 14. Meditation: giving and receiving compassion. 16. Meditation: imagining a compassionate self. 18. Finding difficult emotions. 21. Meditation: empathy with the inner critic. 23. Meditation: the Tonglen—awakening the heart of compassion. 26. Meditation: cultivating a forgiving heart. 28. Meditation: compassion for oneself and for others. | 2. Reassuring touch and self-compassion. 11. Meditation: discovering the resonant self-witness. 13. Meditation: embrace life with a smile. 17. Meditation: the radical acceptance of pain. 20. Meditation: receiving fear. 22. Informal practice: compassion with equanimity. 24. Meditation: the prenatal self. 29. Meditation: “who am I?” |
Pre | Post | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Group | M (SD) | M (SD) | F (1124) | n2 | |
SCS | WL | 33.67 (9.07) | 34.13 (10.23) | 30.30 *** | 0.194 |
SCMI | 32.48 (9.55) | 40.11 (10.28) | |||
SK-SJ | WL | 10.90 (3.56) | 10.88 (3.90) | 30.12 *** | 0.191 |
SCMI | 10.52 (3.57) | 13.29 (3.70) | |||
CH-I | WL | 11.19 (2.92) | 11.51 (3.40) | 15.62 *** | 0.109 |
SCMI | 10.65 (3.40) | 13.21 (3.79) | |||
M-OI | WL | 11.76 (3.75) | 11.91 (3.78) | 22.10 *** | 0.148 |
SCMI | 11.30 (3.50) | 13.67 (3.32) |
Variable | Group | Pre Mean (SD) | Post Mean (SD) | Follow-Up Mean (SD) |
---|---|---|---|---|
DEPRESSION | SCMI | 11.56 (3.22) | 10.33 (2.71) | 10.95 (2.67) |
WL | 12.06 (4.51 | 12.35 (5.04) | 11.85 (3.85) | |
ANXIETY | SCMI | 12.58 (3.48) | 10.37 (2.76) | 10.84 (2.76) |
WL | 11.51 (4.05) | 11.51 (4.52) | 11.65 (3.06) | |
STRESS | SCMI | 16.89 (10.79) | 13.76 (3.55) | 14.59 (0.41) |
WL | 17.55 (12.01) | 15.61 (4.91) | 14.99 (4.21) |
Post (n = 61) | Follow-Up (n = 38) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Anxiety | Depression | Stress | Anxiety | Depression | Stress | |
SCS | 0.47 *** | 0.51 *** | 0.59 *** | 0.34 ** | 0.30 * | 0.27 * |
SK-SJ | 0.40 *** | 0.49 *** | 0.63 *** | 0.34 ** | 0.32 ** | 0.22 |
CH-I | 0.33 ** | 0.37 ** | 0.33 ** | 0.30 * | 0.29 * | 0.22 |
M-OI | 0.51 *** | 0.51 *** | 0.61 *** | 0.37 ** | 0.31 ** | 0.25 * |
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Gutiérrez-Hernández, M.E.; Fanjul Rodríguez, L.F.; Díaz Megolla, A.; Oyanadel, C.; Peñate Castro, W. The Effect of Daily Meditative Practices Based on Mindfulness and Self-Compassion on Emotional Distress under Stressful Conditions: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Eur. J. Investig. Health Psychol. Educ. 2023, 13, 762-775. https://doi.org/10.3390/ejihpe13040058
Gutiérrez-Hernández ME, Fanjul Rodríguez LF, Díaz Megolla A, Oyanadel C, Peñate Castro W. The Effect of Daily Meditative Practices Based on Mindfulness and Self-Compassion on Emotional Distress under Stressful Conditions: A Randomized Controlled Trial. European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education. 2023; 13(4):762-775. https://doi.org/10.3390/ejihpe13040058
Chicago/Turabian StyleGutiérrez-Hernández, María Elena, Luisa Fernanda Fanjul Rodríguez, Alicia Díaz Megolla, Cristián Oyanadel, and Wenceslao Peñate Castro. 2023. "The Effect of Daily Meditative Practices Based on Mindfulness and Self-Compassion on Emotional Distress under Stressful Conditions: A Randomized Controlled Trial" European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education 13, no. 4: 762-775. https://doi.org/10.3390/ejihpe13040058