Nutritional Status of Slovene Adults in the Post-COVID-19 Epidemic Period
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design and Eligibility
2.2. Subjects
2.3. Outcomes
2.3.1. Body Composition Measures
2.3.2. Dietary Intake
2.4. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Characteristics of the Participants
3.2. Body Composition Status
3.3. Dietary Intake Status
4. Discussion
4.1. Main Findings
4.2. Body Composition Status
4.3. Dietary Intake Status
5. Strengths and Limitations
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Parameter | BH (cm) | BM (kg) | BMI (kg/m2) | FAT (%) | FATM (kg) | FATM/BH (kg/cm) | FFM (%) | FFM (kg) | FFM/BH (kg/cm) | TBW (kg) | PhA (°) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total | 170.9 ± 9.0 | 73.6 ± 17.2 | 25.1 ± 5.0 | 24.6 ± 8.3 | 18.7 ± 9.7 | 0.11 ± 0.06 | 75.4 ± 8.3 | 55.0 ± 11.6 | 0.32 ± 0.05 | 39.2 ± 8.3 | 5.9 ± 0.7 |
Females | 166.3 ± 6.3 | 67.2 ± 13.9 | 24.3 ± 4.8 | 27.3 ± 7.6 | 19.2 ± 9.3 | 0.12 ± 0.06 | 72.7 ± 7.8 | 48.0 ± 6.1 | 0.29 ± 0.03 | 34.3 ± 4.4 | 5.6 ± 0.5 |
Males | 179.1 ± 7.0 | 85.3 ± 16.4 | 26.6 ± 5.0 | 19.8 ± 7.1 | 17.8 ± 10.3 | 0.10 ± 0.06 | 80.1 ± 7.1 | 67.5 ± 8.2 | 0.38 ± 0.04 | 48.1 ± 6.1 | 6.4 ± 0.7 |
p-value | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.057 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 |
Adults | 171.2 ± 8.9 | 73.4 ± 17.4 | 24.9 ± 5.0 | 24.3 ± 8.2 | 18.4 ± 9.7 | 0.11 ± 0.06 | 75.7 ± 8.2 | 55.0 ± 11.6 | 0.32 ± 0.05 | 39.3 ± 8.3 | 6.0 ± 0.7 |
Older adults | 167.3 ± 8.5 | 76.5 ± 14.6 | 27.2 ± 4.2 | 28.7 ± 8.4 | 22.2 ± 8.2 | 0.13 ± 0.05 | 71.3 ± 8.4 | 54.3 ± 11.4 | 0.32 ± 0.72 | 38.1 ± 7.9 | 5.3 ± 0.6 |
p-value | <0.001 | 0.162 | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.002 | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.631 | 0.717 | 0.252 | <0.001 |
Adults | |||||||||||
Females | 166.6 ± 6.2 | 67.0 ± 14.1 | 24.1 ± 4.9 | 26.9 ± 7.6 | 18.8 ± 9.3 | 0.11 ± 0.06 | 73.1 ± 7.6 | 48.2 ± 6.1 | 0.29 ± 0.03 | 34.5 ± 4.4 | 5.7 ± 0.5 |
Males | 179.5 ± 7.1 | 85.1 ± 16.8 | 26.4 ± 5.0 | 19.5 ± 7.0 | 17.6 ± 10.4 | 0.10 ± 0.06 | 80.5 ± 7.0 | 67.6 ± 8.4 | 0.38 ± 0.04 | 48.3 ± 6.2 | 6.6 ± 0.6 |
p-value | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.077 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 |
Older adults | |||||||||||
Females | 161.7 ± 5.0 | 69.1 ± 11.0 | 26.4 ± 4.2 | 32.7 ± 6.5 | 23.1 ± 7.6 | 0.14 ± 0.05 | 67.3 ± 6.5 | 45.9 ± 4.7 | 0.28 ± 0.03 | 32.4 ± 3.4 | 5.1 ± 0.5 |
Males | 175.6 ± 5.0 | 87.4 ± 12.3 | 28.4 ± 4.1 | 22.8 ± 7.3 | 20.7 ± 8.9 | 0.12 ± 0.05 | 77.2 ± 7.4 | 66.7 ± 5.2 | 0.38 ± 0.02 | 46.6 ± 4.0 | 5.6 ± 0.7 |
p-value | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.063 | <0.001 | 0.261 | 0.044 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 |
Parameter | Total | Females | Males | Adults | Females | Males | Older Adults | Females | Males | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
According to BMI classification (n/%) | ||||||||||
Normal (BMI 18.5–24.9 kg/m2) | 479 (57) | 345 (64) | 134 (45) | 455 (58) | 327 (65) | 128 (47) | 24 (36) | 18 (45) | 6 (22) | |
Overweight (BMI 25–29.9 kg/m2) | 233 (28) | 127 (23) | 106 (35) | 209 (27) | 115 (23) | 94 (34) | 24 (36) | 12 (30) | 12 (44) | |
Obesity 1 class (BMI 30–34.9 kg/m2) | 86 (10) | 40 (7) | 46 (15) | 69 (9) | 31 (6) | 38 (14) | 17 (25) | 9 (23) | 8 (30) | |
Obesity 2 class (BMI 35–39.9 kg/m2) | 18 (2) | 10 (2) | 8 (3) | 16 (2) | 9 (2) | 7 (3) | 2 (3) | 1 (3) | 1 (4) | |
Obesity 3 class (BMI > 40 kg/m2) | 28 (3) | 21 (4) | 7 (2) | 28 (4) | 21 (4) | 7 (3) | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
p-value | <0.001 | |||||||||
According to FAT% obesity classification | ||||||||||
Female | >35% | 92 (17) | 77 (15) | 15 (38) | ||||||
<35% | 451 (83) | 426 (85) | 25 (62) | |||||||
Male | >25% | 75 (25) | 64 (23) | 11 (41) | ||||||
<25% | 226 (75) | 210 (77) | 16 (59) | |||||||
p-value | 0.005 | 0.005 | 0.789 |
Macronutrients (per Day) | Females (n = 22) | Males (n = 17) | Total (n = 39) | p-Value |
---|---|---|---|---|
Energy intake (kcal) | 1950 ± 142 | 2097 ± 399 | 2014 ± 421 | 0.213 |
Carbohydrates (g) | 216 ± 61 | 198 ± 64 | 208 ± 64 | 0.428 |
(% E) | 44 ± 6 | 38 ± 11 | 42 ± 10 | 0.034 |
Total sugarsTS (g) | 70 ± 57 | 56 ± 25 | 64 ± 46 | 0.702 |
Free sugarsFS (g) | 23 ± 37 | 10 ± 11 | 17 ± 29 | 0.340 |
(% E) | 4 ± 6 | 2 ± 2 | 3 ± 5 | 0.186 |
Starches (g) | 60 ± 38 | 79 ± 40 | 68 ± 40 | 0.106 |
Dietary fibers (g) | 27 ± 6 | 26 ± 7 | 26 ± 6 | 0.619 |
(% E) | 3 ± 1 | 3 ± 1 | 3 ± 1 | 0.321 |
Fat (g) | 79 ± 31 | 91 ± 30 | 84 ± 31 | 0.240 |
(% E) | 36 ± 10 | 39 ± 11 | 37 ± 10 | 0.213 |
SFAs (g) | 22 ± 13 | 25 ± 11 | 23 ± 12 | 0.161 |
(% E) | 10 ± 4 | 11 ± 5 | 10 ± 4 | 0.336 |
MUFAs (g) | 27 ± 15 | 27 ± 15 | 27 ± 15 | 0.898 |
(% E) | 12 ± 6 | 12 ± 7 | 12 ± 6 | 0.488 |
PUFAs (g) | 19 ± 6 | 18 ± 7 | 18 ± 6 | 0.436 |
(% E) | 9 ± 3 | 8 ± 2 | 8 ± 2 | 0.157 |
Cholesterol (mg) | 307 ± 276 | 511 ± 352 | 395 ± 323 | 0.079 |
Proteins (g) | 80 ± 22 | 108 ± 32 | 92 ± 30 | 0.007 |
(% E) | 17 ± 4 | 21 ± 5 | 18 ± 5 | 0.012 |
Plant proteins (g) | 39 ± 12 | 34 ± 15 | 37 ± 13 | 0.234 |
(% E) | 8 ± 3 | 6 ± 3 | 7 ± 3 | 0.023 |
Animal proteins (g) | 41 ± 19 | 74 ± 35 | 55 ± 31 | 0.004 |
(% E) | 9 ± 3 | 14 ± 6 | 11 ± 6 | 0.003 |
Total waterTW (L) | 1.7 ± 0.5 | 2.1 ± 0.5 | 1.9 ± 0.5 | 0.013 |
Micronutrients (per Day) | Females (n = 22) | Males (n = 17) | Total (n = 39) | p-Value |
---|---|---|---|---|
Vitamins | ||||
Thiamine (mg) | 1.4 ± 0.4 | 1.7 ± 0.6 | 1.6 ± 0.5 | 0.100 |
Riboflavin (mg) | 1.5 ± 0.6 | 2.2 ± 0.9 | 1.8 ± 0.8 | 0.008 |
Niacin (mg) | 16 ± 5 | 25 ± 13 | 20 ± 10 | 0.005 |
Pantothenic acid (mg) | 5.7 ± 2.2 | 7.3 ± 2.7 | 6.4 ± 2.5 | 0.041 |
Vitamin B6 (mg) | 1.7 ± 0.6 | 1.9 ± 0.6 | 1.8 ± 0.6 | 0.371 |
Biotin (µg) | 60 ± 31 | 78 ± 35 | 68 ± 34 | 0.081 |
Folate (µg) | 378 ± 152 | 420 ± 176 | 396 ± 162 | 0.420 |
Vitamin B12 (µg) | 4.0 ± 3.4 | 6.1 ± 4.2 | 4.9 ± 3.9 | 0.084 |
Retinol equ.RE (mg) | 2.1 ± 0.4 | 2.2 ± 0.2 | 2.1 ± 0.3 | 0.103 |
Vitamin C (mg) | 78 ± 55 | 61 ± 33 | 71 ± 47 | 0.411 |
Vitamin D (µg) | 3.8 ± 2.8 | 5.3 ± 3.5 | 4.5 ± 3.2 | 0.145 |
Vitamin E (mg) | 13 ± 3 | 12 ± 5 | 13 ± 6 | 0.661 |
Vitamin K (µg) | 205 ± 139 | 158 ± 126 | 185 ± 134 | 0.077 |
Minerals | ||||
Calcium (mg) | 725 ± 344 | 891 ± 366 | 798 ± 359 | 0.208 |
Magnesium (mg) | 496 ± 149 | 470 ± 140 | 485 ± 144 | 0.661 |
Phosphorus (mg) | 1624 ± 460 | 1800 ± 415 | 1701 ± 445 | 0.213 |
Potassium (mg) | 3513 ± 1064 | 3172 ± 866 | 3364 ± 985 | 0.343 |
Sodium (mg) † | 1604 ± 1303 | 1755 ± 934 | 1670 ± 1145 | 0.357 |
Chloride (mg) † | 2131 ± 951 | 2684 ± 1446 | 2372 ± 1207 | 0.208 |
Trace elements | ||||
Iron (mg) | 17 ± 5 | 17 ± 4 | 17 ± 4 | 0.831 |
Zinc (mg) | 11 ± 3 | 11 ± 3 | 11 ± 4 | 0.372 |
Selenium (µg) | 71 ± 34 | 107 ± 60 | 87 ± 50 | 0.052 |
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Jakše, B.; Godnov, U.; Pinter, S. Nutritional Status of Slovene Adults in the Post-COVID-19 Epidemic Period. Eur. J. Investig. Health Psychol. Educ. 2022, 12, 1729-1742. https://doi.org/10.3390/ejihpe12120122
Jakše B, Godnov U, Pinter S. Nutritional Status of Slovene Adults in the Post-COVID-19 Epidemic Period. European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education. 2022; 12(12):1729-1742. https://doi.org/10.3390/ejihpe12120122
Chicago/Turabian StyleJakše, Boštjan, Uroš Godnov, and Stanislav Pinter. 2022. "Nutritional Status of Slovene Adults in the Post-COVID-19 Epidemic Period" European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education 12, no. 12: 1729-1742. https://doi.org/10.3390/ejihpe12120122