Inclusion of Moringa oleifera Leaf Extracts and Varying Final Internal Temperatures to Influence the Antioxidant and Physicochemical Qualities of Low-Grade Beef Patties

Abstract

This study evaluated the efficacy of Moringa oleifera (M. oleifera) extract on the functional and physicochemical properties of low-grade beef patties after different final internal temperature cooking was carried out. Four ranges of concentration (1–4%) were compared to a negative control (without M. oleifera addition), wherein all treatments were cooked until reaching medium (71 °C) and well-done (80 °C) temperatures. The results showed that incorporating M. oleifera extract at 3% significantly reduced malondialdehyde (MDA) formation in medium-cooked patties compared to the control (p < 0.05), enhancing antioxidant capacity. A reduction in MDA in well-done patties was also shown up to this additional level. However, higher concentrations (4%) adversely affected water holding capacity, cooking yield, and proximate compositions. Further, the pH value also declined with increased M. oleifera extract. Therefore, this study revealed that cooking patties to well-done resulted in greater lipid oxidation and cooking loss. Further, this study recommends using 3% M. oleifera extract in medium-cooked beef patties to maximize the antioxidant benefits while maintaining quality.

1. Introduction

In recent decades, industrial innovations have driven a significant transformation to chase rapid shifting in processing technologies and customer satisfaction. This is unlike the situation at the end of the 19th and early 20th century, wherein the food sector as a traditional industry was considered a sector with low research activity [1,2]. Aside from its vital role in producing food from plant and animal sources, the food sector faces constant challenges in meeting customer demand for functional and healthy foods [3,4]. This is due to a number of characteristics, mainly food functionalities, nutritional value, texture, and assurance of safety for perpetual consumption, which greatly influence consumer preferences for food, especially meat products [5,6]. The key feature of functional foods is the improvement of health status without incurring detrimental effects upon ingestion [7]. In recent decades, the effort to improve the functional properties of foods and meat products is mainly carried out through fortification [3,6,8], microencapsulation [9,10], and hydrolyzation [9,11,12].

The nutritional content of meat products that are primarily made up of perishable materials, including proteins and unsaturated fatty acids, makes them prone to rapid deterioration. Along with enzymatic changes and microbial spoilage, protein and fat oxidation are the predominant factors for significant quality deterioration [13]. Furthermore, consumer satisfaction is highly reflected in the processing procedures, in which rugged grinding followed by high temperature cooking modifies meat muscle integrities, thus promoting protein and lipid membranes’ exposure to pro-oxidants, leading to the production of free radicals and the continuation of oxidative reactions [14]. Previous reports mentioned that higher cooking temperature influences higher malondialdehyde formation as a by-product of lipid oxidation in meat products [5,15]. Therefore, cooking until reaching the recommended internal temperature is an important aspect to be studied due to its significant relationship with consumer satisfaction, including factors like juiciness, tenderness, and flavor intensities [16].

To date, as interest in the inclusion of natural compounds, mainly plants rich in polyphenols and bioactive compounds, is greatly increased, this results in the greater involvement of native and medicinal plants in meat products. Nevertheless, some medicinal plants’ inclusion was reported to interfere with quality and sensorial acceptance, wherein high levels of some polyphenols, particularly tannins, can give meat products an unpleasant bitter and astringent taste that consumers might not enjoy [17,18], and tannins may form a bond with meat proteins, which could negatively impact the texture of the meat [19,20].

According to the aforementioned premises, a study to investigate the inclusion effect of a plant product rich in polyphenols along with different cooking temperatures on the quality attributes of beef patties is necessary. This study utilized Moringa oleifera (M. oleifera), the most widely cultivated species among the Moringaceae family, commercially cultivated in most parts of the world, including Asia, Africa, America, India, and Southeast Asia [21]. This plant is reported by many studies to contain a broad variety of nutrients including amino and fatty acids, minerals, vitamins, as well as phytonutrients like ascorbic acid, tocopherols, carotenoids, and flavonoids [22,23,24].

Due to its complete nutritional and phytochemical contents, M. oleifera leaves are proven to possess a distinctly higher pro-oxidant scavenging activity compared to that of known antioxidant-rich sources, like strawberries [25]. Therefore, efforts to integrate its functionalities in food products are on the rise. It was mentioned that the potential use of M. oleifera is suggested in yogurt [26], bread [27], soups [28], and in livestock industries, with the main efficacy being the suppression of oxidation and the maintenance of lipid and color stability [29]. With regard to the possible incorporation of M. oleifera extracts in meat products, the aim of this study was to assess the quality changes in beef patties cooked at varied final internal temperatures following the addition of M. oleifera extract.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Preparation of Beef Patties

The Pectoralis major (brisket) from beef samples graded as low-grade under the Indonesian meat grading system was purchased from a local market in Surakarta, Central Java, Indonesia. The initial preparation was performed by removing visible fats and subsequently mincing using a meat chopper (MMX-TQ5A, Fomac, Jakarta, Indonesia). The defatted brisket was then combined with additional ingredients including salt, water, and M. oleifera extract. Preparation of the M. oleifera extract was according to a previous report by [14] with minor modification. The oven-dried (50 °C, 18 h, 8% moisture content) leaf counterparts of M. oleifera were obtained from a domestic market (Naturlife, Bogor, Indonesia) with the registered product number 2103271231176-29. Meanwhile, regarding the M. oleifera leaf extract preparation, a total of 500 g dried M. oleifera was combined with distilled water in a 1:10 ratio (w/v). The mixture was then left to steep overnight, at room temperature, to maximize the extraction of total phenolic contents and bioactive compounds. Following the steeping process, the mixture was then filtered using a fine mesh to separate the liquid extract from the solid particles. The final Moringa oleifera leaf extract was directly utilized without further storage to assure its effectiveness.

Table 1. Formulation of beef patties with various concentrations of Moringa oleifera leaf extracts added.

Ingredients (%)	Treatments
	P0	P1	P2	P3	P4
Beef	81.5	81.5	81.5	81.5	81.5
Ice	7.0	7.0	7.0	7.0	7.0
Egg	5.0	5.0	5.0	5.0	5.0
Emulsifier	0.5	0.5	0.5	0.5	0.5
Seasonings	3.0	3.0	3.0	3.0	3.0
Flour	3.0	3.0	3.0	3.0	3.0
Subtotal	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0
M. oleifera extracts	0.00	1.00	2.00	3.00	4.00

P0, negative control without Moringa oleifera extract addition; P1, beef patties with 1% (w/w) Moringa oleifera extract addition; P2, beef patties with 2% (w/w) Moringa oleifera extract addition; P3, beef patties with 3% (w/w) Moringa oleifera extract addition; P4, beef patties with 4% (w/w) Moringa oleifera extract addition. Medium, barbecued for 9 min until internal temperature reaches 71 °C; well-done, barbecued for 16 min until internal temperature reaches 80 °C.

displays the formulation for making beef patties in this study, wherein each of the patties is made to be ±60 g in weight. Each patty sample was prepared in triplicate.

2.2. Crude Protein, Crude Fat, Moisture Content

The determination of crude protein, crude fat, and moisture content was aimed at understanding the possible modification given by the M. oleifera extract on the patties’ macronutrients. The analyses employed fourier transform infrared (FTIR, Nicolet iS-10, Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA), a non-destructive technique used to specifically quantify the chemical composition of foods [30]. The FTIR analysis was conducted using a 1 g sample. Initially, the spectrometer was finely calibrated to identify specific absorbance peaks. Using an attenuated total reflectance (ATR) accessory, samples were evaluated, and the infrared spectra obtained were analyzed with the chemometric methods of the principal component analysis (PCA) and partial least squares regression (PLSR) to match the absorbance peaks with known concentrations from the calibration standards. The FTIR method’s precision is confirmed against the established reference techniques such as oven drying for moisture, Kjeldahl for protein, and Soxhlet extraction for fat.

2.3. pH Value

The homogenized samples were analyzed in triplicate to determine their pH value. Using a previously calibrated pH meter probe, the pH value of stirred slurry samples was determined using a Seven Easy pH meter (Mettler-Toledo GmbH, Greifensee, Switzerland) after 5 g of sample was mixed with 45 mL of distilled water in a PH91 homogenizer (SMT Co., Ltd., Chiba, Japan).

2.4. Cooking Loss

The weight difference between the beef patties before and after cooking was recorded and used to calculate the weight loss during cooking or cooking loss. The following formula is utilized to determine the cooking loss of beef patties:

Cooking loss (%) = (weight of raw beef patty (g) − weight of grilled beef patty (g))/weight of raw beef patty (g) × 100

(1)

2.5. Water Holding Capacity

In this study, the water holding capacity was determined using a pressed method according to the protocols given by [12]. Cooked samples were prepared on filter paper to avoid meat sticking to the surface and to absorb the expelled water. An equivalent weight of 2.5 kg was placed on the covered samples and pressed the meat; thus, water from meat was exudated. By applying this method, the WHC can be obtained after calculation using the following formula:

WHC (%) = [(Wi − We)/Wi] × 100

(2)

Wi is the initial weight of the meat sample; We is the weight of the expressed water.

2.6. Shear Force Value

The measurements of the shear force value on the beef patties were conducted using TA-XT2i Plus equipment (Stable Micro Systems, Surrey, UK). Beef samples were previously made into a uniform size of 1.5 by 1.5 by 1.5 cm. Subsequently, the samples were placed under the V blade and cut at the determined speeds. The measurement of the shear force value in this study was repeated using 6 samples, wherein the results are expressed as kilogram force (kgf).

2.7. DPPH Scavenging Activity

The DPPH radical (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MI, USA) scavenging activity is a common method used to understand the antioxidant capacity of certain materials. In this study, DPPH radical scavenging activity from beef patties incorporated with M. oleifera extract was measured according to the protocols given by [31], with minor adjustments. In a 96-well microplate, 100 μL of the extract solution was added to 100 μL of methanolic solution that contained 0.2 mM of DPPH radicals. The extracted mixtures (100 μL) were placed in a 96-well microplate that was previously filled with 100 μL of methanolic solution containing 0.2 mM DPPH radicals. The mixture was allowed to react for ±30 min in dark conditions at a temperature of 25 °C. The absorbances on the reacted samples were recorded using a spectrophotometer at 517 nm. The standard curve was established using Trolox, and the DPPH values were expressed as mmol Trolox equivalent (TE)/g dry matter (DM).

2.8. Lipid Oxidation

Malondialdehyde is a predominant by-product derived from lipid oxidations and is commonly used as a marker for quantifying lipid oxidation occurrence within food products. In this study, the concentration of lipid oxidation was analyzed using 2-thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) assay according to the protocols given by [6]. Five grams of beef patties were placed in 50 mL of 7.2% tert-butyl-4-hydroxyanisole (Sigma-aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA) along with 15 mL distilled water, and then homogenized vigorously for 30 s using a homogenizer. Subsequently, in a test tube, 1 mL of the homogenate sample was transferred, and 2 mL of thiobarbituric acid (TBA)/trichloroacetic acid (TCA) (Sigma-aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA) solution (20 mM TBA/15% TCA) was added and let to react. An aliquot of 2 mL of each patty homogenate was mixed with 2 mL of a 15% TCA solution to make a blank sample. Finally, to generate a colored solution that marks successful reaction, the sample combination was incubated in a water bath (Memmert WNB14RACK, Bayern, Germany) at 90 °C for 15 min.

2.9. Statistical Analysis

The data analyses in this study were performed using two-way multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) using R-version 3.6.1 (The R-foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria), with respect to treatments and cooking methods. The significant mean value of each group was continuously analyzed using Duncan’s multiple range test, with statistical significance considered significant at p-values lower than 0.05.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. pH Value and Cooking Loss

Table 2. Effect of Moringa oleifera extract addition on quality properties of beef patties cooked to different final internal temperature.

Variables	Doneness Level	Treatments					SEM
		P0	P1	P2	P3	P4
pH value	Medium	5.75 Aa	5.72 Aa	5.68 Aab	5.62 Ab	5.59 Ab	0.00
	Well-done	5.65 Aa	5.62 Aa	5.69 Aa	5.68 Aa	5.66 Aa	0.01
	SEM	0.02	0.01	0.02	0.00	0.01
Cooking Loss (%)	Medium	5.16 B	7.76 B	8.41 B	9.22 B	8.24 B	0.72
	Well-done	11.21 A	11.55 A	13.47 A	10.71 A	16.15 A	0.69
	SEM	0.78	0.24	0.81	0.52	0.39
WHC (%)	Medium	76.16 b	80.34 a	74.61 b	81.63 a	68.63 c	0.51
	Well-done	63.34 c	81.15 a	76.32 b	78.15 ab	61.46 c	0.37
	SEM	0.46	0.35	0.68	0.41	0.55

P0, negative control without Moringa oleifera extract addition; P1, beef patties with 1% (w/w) Moringa oleifera extract addition; P2, beef patties with 2% (w/w) Moringa oleifera extract addition; P3, beef patties with 3% (w/w) Moringa oleifera extract addition; P4, beef patties with 4% (w/w) Moringa oleifera extract addition. Medium, barbecued for 9 min until internal temperature reaches 71 °C; Well-done, barbecued for 16 min until internal temperature reaches 80 °C. ^A,B Means within a column with different superscript differ significantly at p < 0.05. ^a,b,c Means within a row with different superscript differ significantly at p < 0.05.

shows how the pH value changed after treatment with various concentrations of the M. oleifera extract, cooked at markedly different final internal temperatures. In raw conditions, the pH value of the raw patties was in the range of 5.62, while the values for the treatment patties ranged from 5.07 through 5.61 for the lowest through to the highest M. oleifera extract addition (unpublished data). This experiment discovered a significantly different pattern occurs after incorporating M. oleifera extract into both medium and well-done beef patties. As shown in Table 2, the final internal temperature had no significant effect on the patties’ pH (p > 0.05), with this study revealing a pH range of 5.62–5.72. This conclusion was consistent with that published by [6], who discovered that cooking patties until well-done did not significantly alter the pH value of perilla leaves incorporated into pork patties in the range of 0.2 to 0.4% compared to that of medium final temperature. Our previous report utilizing different cooking methods inferred that the pH value to be significantly differed when significant heat was applied to meat products, wherein retorting at 121.1 °C and 1.5 kgf produced the highest ultimate pH, while sous-vide (80 °C) and boiling (100 °C) shared no significant differences [5].

Regarding the inclusion effect of M. oleifera extracts, the pH value declined significantly in comparison to that of control group (C) when 3 and 4% of the extracts were added to the beef patties. The decreased pH value could be attributable to the comparatively low pH of the M. oleifera extract, which alters the final meat products. Furthermore, the higher proportion of added M. oleifera extract into beef patties produced a significantly different result than [13], who added 600 g maximum M. oleifera extract into pork patties. The metabolic activities that take place in the meat environment are generally indicated by the pH values [11]. It is the first measure of the quality of meat, including its ability to retain water, appearance, texture, and its internal physicochemical condition. Meat pH levels below 7 are detrimental, as it is linked to meats with rougher textures, reduced cooking yields, and a low water retention capacity [16]. It is an indication of excessive protein denaturation [9]. Furthermore, no significant variations in cooking loss were seen in any of the sample groups after treatment with M. oleifera extracts. Cooking patties to well-done resulted in a significantly increased cooking loss due to longer moisture evaporation [6], which was also seen in this study.

3.2. Water Holding Capacity

As seen in Table 2, the inclusion of M. oleifera extracts had a positive influence on the water retention ability of the beef patties (p < 0.05). Despite the linear inconsistency finding found in this investigation, beef patties containing M. oleifera extract maintained a similar or significantly higher WHC relative to the negative control at all concentrations (p < 0.05). Furthermore, the results from this study demonstrated that adding 1% or 3% of M. oleifera extract to beef patties may even result in the maximum WHC percentage for the medium and well-done doneness levels. Nevertheless, the extent of the incorporation of M. oleifera extract percentage was detrimental to beef patties via the reduction in WHC, as observed in this present study. The rate at which water evaporates from the interior meat environment during the processing stage is a major determinant for the WHC, an essential economic characteristic of meat products. Many studies inferred that meat pH indicates a strong correlation with the ionic properties of the meat’s protein and water contents [13]. Consistent with previous research findings, the phytochemicals in M. oleifera, especially phenolic compounds and flavonoids, are associated with better oxidative stability in meat, helping prevent quality degradation by reducing lipid oxidation. This helps preserve the structural integrity of the proteins and lipids, contributing to a better WHC. The study also indicates that the rate of water evaporation during processing significantly affects WHC. M. oleifera extracts may form a barrier around muscle fibers, limiting moisture loss while cooking, which not only improves WHC but also the sensory qualities of beef patties, like juiciness and tenderness. This study suggests that the inclusion of M. oleifera helps the protein’s capacity to retain water during storage and processing [6,32]. The pH level of meat is a critical factor affecting the WHC, as it is closely related to the ionic properties of muscle proteins and their water-binding ability. Extracts from M. oleifera, which are abundant in bioactive compounds like antioxidants, have been proven to prevent protein denaturation during processing and storage [14]. These extracts maintain protein integrity, thus enhancing their hydrophilic properties and water-binding capacity. This supports earlier studies that suggest antioxidants can slow down protein denaturation, leading to improved moisture retention in meat products [14].

3.3. Moisture, Crude Protein, and Crude Fat

Table 3. Effect of Moringa oleifera extract addition on moisture, crude protein, and crude fat percentage of beef patties cooked to different final internal temperature.

Variables	Doneness Level	Treatments					SEM
		P0	P1	P2	P3	P4
Moisture (%)	Medium	69.68 Aa	68.11 Aa	70.06 Aa	70.43 Aa	66.33 Ab	0.10
	Well-done	67.42 Bab	66.49 Aab	64.63 Bb	69.34 Aa	64.28 Bb	0.07
	SEM	0.16	0.09	0.11	0.14	0.12
Crude Fat (%)	Medium	2.56 Bb	3.36 Ba	3.67 Aa	3.12 Ba	2.60 Bb	0.32
	Well-done	3.53 Ab	4.30 Aa	4.24 Aa	4.30 Aa	3.48 Ab	0.19
	SEM	0.24	0.21	0.27	0.19	0.21
Crude Protein (%)	Medium	22.38 Ba	22.13 Ba	23.42 Ba	23.43 Aa	21.48 Bb	0.15
	Well-done	24.14 Ab	24.42 Aab	25.33 Aa	23.73 Ab	23.38 Ab	0.22
	SEM	0.17	0.21	0.16	0.14	0.20

P0, negative control without Moringa oleifera extract addition; P1, beef patties with 1% (w/w) Moringa oleifera extract addition; P2, beef patties with 2% (w/w) Moringa oleifera extract addition; P3, beef patties with 3% (w/w) Moringa oleifera extract addition; P4, beef patties with 4% (w/w) Moringa oleifera extract addition. Medium, barbecued for 9 min until internal temperature reaches 71 °C; Well-done, barbecued for 16 min until internal temperature reaches 80 °C. ^A,B Means within a column with different superscript differ significantly at p < 0.05. ^a,b Means within a row with different superscript differ significantly at p < 0.05.

displays the proximate composition of beef patties following treatment using various concentration of M. oleifera extracts and cooked to both medium and well-done levels. The inclusion of M. oleifera extracts considerably modified the moisture percentage under both medium and well-done levels (p < 0.05). The content of moisture in medium-cooked beef patties ranged from 66.33 to 70.43, whereas for well-done patties, the range was between 64.28 and 69.34. The group of beef patties that received a 3% M. oleifera extract treatment had the highest results of all the treatments. On the other hand, it was demonstrated that an increased extract inclusion of up to 4% had a detrimental effect on the moisture content. As anticipated, the current study’s findings support a prior investigation which found that cooking beef patties to a higher final internal temperature resulted in a lower moisture percentage and a noticeably higher moisture content in the protein that was retained [5,10].

Furthermore, in this study, the percentage of crude fat varied significantly only when M. oleifera extracts were incorporated into the patties. Meanwhile, regardless of the inclusion percentage, the proportion of crude fat in well-done patties was considerably higher than that in medium-cooked patties (p < 0.05). Similarly to the result trend for the moisture content, the extent of the addition of M. oleifera extracts up to 4% into beef patties resulted in a significant decrease in crude fat (p < 0.05). In addition, with regard to protein properties, this study recorded that different doneness levels produced beef patties with distinct protein proportions. Under medium-level cooking, the inclusion of M. oleifera extracts did not contribute to a significant improvement in protein content, but instead, additions of up to 4% markedly decreased the protein of patties (p < 0.05). The range of protein percentages found in medium-cooked patties ranged from 21.48 to 23.43%. Meanwhile, when they were cooked to a well-done consistency, the group of patties with the addition of 3% M. oleifera extract displayed the highest protein content among all treatments (p < 0.05). The acceleration of moisture loss was the primary source of the notable variations in some of the proximal qualities, which in turn altered the status of other variables [30]. The reduction in crude fat in the beef patties may be attributed to the emulsifying effects of bioactive compounds in M. oleifera, which could lead to more evenly distributed fat. Antioxidants in M. oleifera may also reduce lipid oxidation, affecting fat retention during cooking and promoting a healthier lipid profile in the patties [24,27]. In addition, this study also reveals that cooking levels impact protein content in beef patties. While M. oleifera extracts did not increase the protein content in medium-cooked patties, a 4% concentration significantly reduced it, suggesting an interference with the protein matrix. However, the patties with 3% M. oleifera extract cooked to well-done showed the highest protein levels, indicating that Moringa may improve protein stability at higher cooking temperatures. The relationship between moisture loss and protein concentration is key, as cooking-induced moisture evaporation can concentrate proteins and other nutrients [30].

3.4. TBARS and Antioxidant Capacity

TBARS assay is a well-known method for determining the level of lipid oxidation in meat and meat products based on the accumulation of the malondialdehyde (MDA) free radicals present [6,32]. Figure 1 shows the changes in the TBARS value after treatment using various concentration of M. oleifera extracts. The TBARS value in the control samples was at 0.64 mg MDA/kg under medium cooking, while the extended cooking time to well-done resulted in an accumulation of 0.95 mg MDA/kg. This study displayed that considerably lower MDA concentrations were seen in all M. oleifera extract groups, suggesting that cooking patties only to medium doneness may be more resistant to lipid oxidation. Additionally, this study demonstrated a substantial inhibitory effect of M. oleifera extract addition into beef patties, with the M. oleifera extract groups of more than 1% demonstrating a significantly lower MDA accumulation than that of the control group at any final internal temperature (p < 0.05).

This study also showed that the development of MDA in patties was more suppressed at the higher concentrations of M. oleifera extract applied. The finding was supported by the DPPH analyses results, wherein the antioxidant capacity of the beef patties with M. oleifera extract treatment had a notably higher score than that of the control group (p < 0.05). As shown in Figure 2, the higher concentration of M. oleifera extract within beef patties markedly improves antioxidant capacity (p < 0.05). The enhanced antioxidant activity observed can be linked to the rich phytochemical content of M. oleifera leaves. Phenolic acids, known for their anti-lipid oxidation properties in food, are among the natural compounds contributing to this effect. The study suggests that the potent antioxidant capabilities of M. oleifera extracts stem from a variety of bioactive compounds, including saponins, zeatin, glucosinolates, terpenoids, flavonoids, and glycosides, which collectively combat free radicals and prevent oxidative damage to lipids. Natural compounds have been used for decades to minimize excessive lipid oxidation in beef products, to which specific phenolic acids in natural compounds are mentioned to be the most contributable [5,8,31]. The strong antioxidant properties that were found in this study using M. oleifera extracts are thought to be provided by the substantial amount of saponin, zeatin, glucosinolate, terpenoid, flavonoid, and glycoside content found in M. oleifera leaves [31]. Further, the M. oleifera extracts’ strong inhibition toward lipid oxidation is consistent with findings from a prior study on pork patties and various other food products [13,22].

4. Conclusions

The study demonstrates that incorporating 3% Moringa oleifera leaf extract into beef patties significantly enhances their antioxidant properties while minimizing lipid oxidation. Different final temperatures resulted in the different efficacy of extracts within beef patties, wherein cooking patties to a medium internal temperature optimally balances moisture retention and texture, leading to improved sensory qualities. However, higher concentrations of Moringa extract (4%) adversely affect the water holding capacity and cooking yield, indicating a threshold for the beneficial effects. The findings suggest that the pH value and cooking method are critical factors influencing the overall quality of meat products. As a limitation, this study did not include gas chromatography-mass spectrophotometry analysis in acknowledging and identifying the major bioactive compounds existing within the M. Oleifera extract, as well as the flavor perception after the subjection of various beef patties to M. oleifera extract. Further approaches to address these matters are a top priority.