It’s Not Just about Bicycle Riding: Sensory-Motor, Social and Emotional Benefits for Children with and without Developmental Disabilities
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- What sensory-motor outcomes are sensitive to change and reflect the benefits of participation in an adapted bicycle group intervention for children with sensory and developmental challenges?
- What social/emotional outcomes are sensitive to change and reflect the benefits of participation in an adapted bicycle group intervention for children with sensory and developmental challenges?
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Participants
2.1.1. Study 1
2.1.2. Study 2
2.2. Procedures
2.2.1. Study 1
2.2.2. Study 2
2.3. Measures
2.3.1. Outcomes
- Standing Broad Jump is a measure of leg strength [19] that reflects the child’s ability to jump forward with two feet. This activity is scored for distance to the nearest inch.
- Reach and Rock is a measure of vestibular over-responsivity [20] and reflects the child’s performance of a five-step movement sequence: reaching down to touch the back of their ankles, followed by reaching back to touch the wall behind. Scoring criteria is based on child’s capacity to complete the task of tilting their head forward or backward in space. (Avoidance = 1, no avoidance = 0).
- Statue Game is a measure of static balance [21]. In two positions and two conditions, each with eyes open and eyes closed: (1) two foot standing position on the floor, (2) two-foot standing position on a balance pad, (3) one-foot standing on the floor and (4) one-foot standing on a balance pad. Each position is scored for time up to 10 s.
- Heel-Toe Walking Forward is a measure of dynamic balance [22] that requires the child to walk forward using a heel-to-toe gait along a 12-foot-long, 1-inch thick line. Scoring is based on the number of accurate heel-toe steps completed within 10 s (heel and toe within 1 inch of each other).
- Walking Backwards is also a measure of dynamic balance and coordination [23,24] that requires the child to walk backwards along the same 12-foot-long line using a regular gait. Scoring is based on the number of accurate steps completed within 10 s (e.g., the majority of the foot remaining on the line).
2.3.2. Parent-Report Measures
2.3.3. Riding Proficiency
2.4. Setting and Equipment
2.5. Description of the Intervention
2.6. Interventionist
2.7. Data Analysis
2.7.1. Study 1
2.7.2. Study 2
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Limitations
6. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Study 1 | Study 2 | |
---|---|---|
n = 4 | n = 15 | |
Characteristics | (3 F, 1 M) | (4 F, 11 M) |
Age (years) | 8.95 (7.91–9.71) | 6.48 (4.43–10.6) |
Ethnicity | ||
Caucasians | 4 | 14 |
Mixed | 1 | |
Maternal Education Level | ||
High School | 1 | |
College | 2 | 5 |
Post-Graduate | 2 | 9 |
Paternal Education Level * | ||
High School | 3 | |
College | 2 | 5 |
Post-Graduate | 2 | 6 |
Task | Pre | Post | Wilcoxon | Eta-Squared | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
M (SD) | M (SD) | Z | p | η2 | |
Standing Broad Jump (inches) | 34.23 (12.13) | 38.73 (10.57) | −2.54 | 0.011 * | 0.655 |
Reach and Rock (# completed) | 2.86 (2.07) | 2.93 (2.30) | −0.686 | 0.493 | 0.177 |
Two Feet, Pad, Eyes Open (s) | 10.00 (0) | 9.80 (.780) | 1.00 | 0.317 | 0.258 |
Two Feet, Pad, Eyes Closed (s) | 9.07 (2.09) | 9.00 (2.80) | −0.135 | 0.893 | 0.035 |
Romberg, Floor, Eyes Open (s) | 6.80 (3.47) | 7.73 (3.24) | −0.912 | 0.362 | 0.236 |
Romberg, Floor, Eyes Closed (s) | 4.00 (3.51) | 4.53 (3.07) | −0.696 | 0.487 | 0.180 |
Romberg, Pad, Eyes Open (s) | 5.67 (4.12) | 7.07 (3.28) | −1.53 | 0.125 | 0.396 |
One Foot, Floor, Eyes Open (s) | 6.87 (3.14) | 6.47 (2.72) | −0.434 | 0.664 | 0.112 |
One Foot, Floor, Eyes Closed (s) | 2.93 (2.43) | 3.53 (2.75) | −0.528 | 0.597 | 0.136 |
One Foot, Pad, Eyes Open (s) | 5.60 (3.80) | 5.47 (3.50) | −0.277 | 0.782 | 0.072 |
One Foot, Pad, Eyes Closed (s) | 1.73 (1.34) | 1.93 (1.53) | −0.578 | 0.563 | 0.149 |
Heel-Toe Walk Forward (# steps) | 8.13 (5.57) | 9.80 (5.55) | −1.67 | 0.095 † | 0.430 |
Backward Walking (# steps) | 5.87 (3.91) | 7.00 (3.25) | −1.85 | 0.065 † | 0.477 |
Question | Pre | Post | Wilcoxon | Eta-Squared | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
M (SD) | M (SD) | Z | p | η2 | |
| 6.08 (2.48) | 7.46 (1.48) | −1.66 | 0.096 | 0.445 |
| 5.45 (1.92) | 6.99 (1.49) | −2.36 | 0.019 * | 0.629 |
| 5.49 (1.66) | 7.19 (1.57) | −2.64 | 0.008 ** | 0.705 |
| 6.29 (2.00) | 7.82 (1.00) | −2.20 | 0.028 * | 0.587 |
| 6.19 (1.56) | 7.09 (1.79) | −1.51 | 0.131 | 0.403 |
| 6.21 (1.69) | 7.63 (1.43) | −2.61 | 0.009 ** | 0.696 |
| 3.57 (2.09) | 4.47 (2.34) | −1.48 | 0.140 | 0.395 |
n of | Pre | Post | Wilcoxon | Eta-Squared | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Items | M (SD) | M (SD) | Z | p | η2 | |
OPS: Category | ||||||
Relationship | 2 | 9.00 (1.24) | 9.07 (1.27) | −0.277 | 0.782 | 0.074 |
Routines at Home | 2 | 7.64 (1.91) | 7.86 (1.17) | −0.552 | 0.581 | 0.148 |
Activities of Daily Living | 2 | 8.43 (2.21) | 8.79 (1.42) | −0.785 | 0.432 | 0.210 |
School Activities | 2 | 8.93 (1.64) | 9.21 (1.72) | −1.10 | 0.271 | 0.294 |
Play/Extracurricular | 3 | 12.31 (2.25) | 13.29 (1.98) | −1.38 | 0.166 † | 0.370 |
Age | Gender | Diagnosis | Glide Pre | Glide Post |
---|---|---|---|---|
4.43 | M | Developmental Delay, Sensory Integration, and Processing Challenges | 4 | 16 |
4.61 | M | Sensory Integration and Processing Challenges | 0 | 5 |
4.73 | M | Sensory Integration and Processing Challenges | 5 | 16 |
5.04 | M | Developmental Delay, Sensory Integration, and Processing Challenges | 0 | Riding |
5.75 | F | Sensory Integration and Processing Challenges | 3 | Riding |
5.86 | M | Sensory Integration and Processing Challenges | 0 | 13 |
5.95 | F | Developmental Delay, Sensory Integration, and Processing Challenges | 1 | 14 |
6.51 | M | Sensory Integration and Processing Challenges | 5 | Riding |
6.61 | M | Autism, Developmental Delay, Sensory Integration, and Processing Challenges | 1 | 8 |
6.97 | M | ADHD, Anxiety, Sensory Integration, and Processing Challenges | 4 | Riding |
7.09 | M | Dyspraxia, Sensory Integration, and Processing Challenges | 1 | Riding |
8.16 | M | Sensory Integration and Processing Challenges | 2 | 16 |
8.55 | M | Sensory Integration and Processing Challenges | 2 | Riding |
10.6 | F | Developmental, Cognitive Impairment, Language Delay, Sensory Integration, and Processing Challenges | 0 | 2 |
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Schoen, S.A.; Ferrari, V.; Valdez, A. It’s Not Just about Bicycle Riding: Sensory-Motor, Social and Emotional Benefits for Children with and without Developmental Disabilities. Children 2022, 9, 1224. https://doi.org/10.3390/children9081224
Schoen SA, Ferrari V, Valdez A. It’s Not Just about Bicycle Riding: Sensory-Motor, Social and Emotional Benefits for Children with and without Developmental Disabilities. Children. 2022; 9(8):1224. https://doi.org/10.3390/children9081224
Chicago/Turabian StyleSchoen, Sarah A., Vincentia Ferrari, and Andrea Valdez. 2022. "It’s Not Just about Bicycle Riding: Sensory-Motor, Social and Emotional Benefits for Children with and without Developmental Disabilities" Children 9, no. 8: 1224. https://doi.org/10.3390/children9081224