Estimating the Risk of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in Parents of Children with ADHD and the Association with Their Children’s Disease Severity and Adherence to Medication
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Objectives and Hypothesis
2.2. Sample Size Calculation
2.3. Participants and Procedures
2.4. Measures
2.5. Parent-Report Questionnaires
2.6. Physician Assessment Reports
2.7. Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Limitations and Future Directions
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Characteristics | Total (N = 45) | ADHD (N = 15) | Non-ADHD Parents (N = 30) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
ADHD Child or Adolescent | N | % | N | % | N | % |
Age (years) | ||||||
Mean | 11.67 | - | 11.67 | - | 11.67 | - |
Standard deviation | 2.88 | - | 2.60 | - | 3.06 | - |
Range (min–max) | 6–17 | - | 8–15 | - | 6–17 | - |
Gender, n (%) | ||||||
Male | 37 | 82.2 | 13 | 35.1 | 24 | 64.9 |
Female | 8 | 17.8 | 2 | 25 | 6 | 75 |
Race, n (%) | ||||||
Malay | 26 | 57.8 | 8 | 30.8 | 18 | 69.2 |
Non-Malay | 19 | 42.2 | 7 | 36.8 | 12 | 63.2 |
ADHD Medication | ||||||
On ADHD meds | 32 | 71.1 | 13 | 40.6 | 19 | 59.4 |
Not on ADHD meds | 13 | 28.9 | 2 | 15.4 | 11 | 84.6 |
Parent | ||||||
Age (years) | ||||||
Mean | 45.04 | - | 46 | - | 44.57 | - |
Standard Deviation | 7.70 | - | 6.92 | - | 8.13 | - |
Range | 31–65 | - | 36–58 | - | 31–65 | - |
Gender | ||||||
Male (Fathers) | 15 | 33.3 | 6 | 40 | 9 | 60 |
Female (Mothers) | 30 | 66.7 | 9 | 30 | 21 | 70 |
Highest Education Attainment, n (%) | ||||||
Primary | 1 | 2.2 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 100 |
Secondary | 14 | 31.1 | 5 | 35.7 | 9 | 64.3 |
Tertiary | 30 | 66.7 | 10 | 33.3 | 20 | 66.7 |
Household Income, n (%) | ||||||
<MYR 4849 (B40) | 31 | 68.9 | 10 | 32.3 | 21 | 67.7 |
MYR 4850–10,959 (M40) | 5 | 11.1 | 2 | 40 | 3 | 60 |
>MYR 10,960 (T20) | 9 | 20 | 3 | 33.3 | 6 | 66.7 |
Parental Medical/Mental Health Diagnoses, n (%) | ||||||
None | 20 | 44.4 | ||||
Present | 25 | 55.6 | ||||
ADHD | 10 | 40 | ||||
Mental Disorders | 1 | 4 | ||||
Others (hypertension, diabetes mellitus, asthma, hepatitis B, rheumatic heart dis.) | 14 | 56 |
ADHD in Parents | N | % |
---|---|---|
Previously diagnosed with ADHD | 10 | 22.2 |
High-risk of ADHD due to significant CAARS score (≥2 subscales of score ≥66) | 7 | 15.6 |
Parents previously diagnosed with ADHD and have significant CAARS score (overlap of two categories above) | 2 | - |
Total number of parents with ADHD based on previous diagnosis and by CAARS score | 15 | 33.3 |
(a) | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Vanderbilt Performance Scores by Subscales | All (N = 45) | ADHD in Parent (N = 15) | No ADHD in Parent (N = 30) | p-Value | ||||||
Mean | SD | Range | Mean | SD | Range | Mean | SD | Range | ||
Academic | 11.49 | 3.04 | 5–19 | 12.6 | 3.18 | 8–19 | 10.93 | 2.86 | 5–19 | 0.172 |
Home Behavioural | 6.80 | 2.27 | 3–11 | 7.87 | 2.10 | 3–11 | 6.27 | 2.20 | 3–11 | 0.036 * |
School Behavioural | 12.78 | 4.13 | 4–22 | 14.20 | 4.06 | 6–20 | 12.07 | 4.05 | 4–22 | 0.194 |
Total | 30.98 | 7.83 | 9–48 | 34.67 | 7.99 | 17–48 | 29.13 | 7.19 | 9–41 | 0.047 * |
(b) | ||||||||||
CGI-S | All (N = 45) | ADHD in Parent (N = 15) | No ADHD in Parent (N = 30) | p-Value | ||||||
N | % | N | % | N | % | |||||
Low Severity, n (%) | 22 | 48.9 | 8 | 53.3 | 14 | 46.7 | 0.670 | |||
High Severity, n (%) | 23 | 51.1 | 7 | 46.7 | 16 | 53.3 |
(a) | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
MARS | All (N = 32) | ADHD (N = 13) | Non-ADHD (N = 19) | p-Value | |||
N | % | N | % | N | % | ||
Good Adherence (Score ≥ 23), n (%) | 17 | 53.1 | 6 | 46.2 | 13 | 68.4 | 0.207 |
Poor Adherence (Score < 23), n (%) | 15 | 46.9 | 7 | 53.8 | 6 | 31.6 | |
(b) | |||||||
Good Adherence (Score ≥ 5), n (%) | 20 | 62.5 | 8 | 61.5 | 12 | 63.2 | 0.930 |
Poor Adherence (Score < 5), n (%) | 12 | 37.5 | 5 | 38.5 | 7 | 36.8 |
Pearson Correlation of Parental CAARS Subscales with Child Severity Using Vanderbilt and CGI-S | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Parent-Rated Vanderbilt Performance Section | Clinician-Rated CGI-S | ||||||
Parental CAARS Subscales | Inattention | Pearson Correlation | 0.314 * | 0.427 ** | 0.300 * | 0.449 ** | −0.190 |
Sig.(2-tailed) | 0.036 | 0.003 | 0.045 | 0.002 | 0.212 | ||
Hyperactivity | Pearson Correlation | 0.265 | 0.166 | 0.130 | 0.220 | −0.199 | |
Sig.(2-tailed) | 0.079 | 0.276 | 0.396 | 0.146 | 0.190 | ||
Impulsivity | Pearson Correlation | 0.176 | 0.179 | 0.208 | 0.217 | −0.031 | |
Sig.(2-tailed) | 0.248 | 0.240 | 0.170 | 0.152 | 0.840 | ||
Problems with Self-Concept | Pearson Correlation | 0.199 | 0.344 * | 0.364 * | 0.363 * | −0.009 | |
Sig.(2-tailed) | 0.190 | 0.021 | 0.014 | 0.014 | 0.951 | ||
ADHD Index | Pearson Correlation | 0.349 * | 0.366 * | 0.289 | 0.423 ** | −0.026 | |
Sig.(2-tailed) | 0.019 | 0.013 | 0.054 | 0.004 | 0.868 |
Pearson Correlation of CAARS with MARS and Clinician-Rated Medication Adherence | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Parent-Rated Medication Adherence (MARS) | Clinician-Rated Medication Adherence (CSqMA) | |||
CAARS Subscales | Inattention | Pearson Correlation | 0.081 | 0.013 |
Sig. (2-tailed) | 0.659 | 0.944 | ||
Hyperactivity | Pearson Correlation | 0.153 | 0.011 | |
Sig. (2-tailed) | 0.403 | 0.953 | ||
Impulsive | Pearson Correlation | 0.270 | −0.033 | |
Sig. (2-tailed) | 0.136 | 0.858 | ||
Problems with Self Concept | Pearson Correlation | 0.135 | −0.056 | |
Sig. (2-tailed) | 0.460 | 0.762 | ||
ADHD Index | Pearson Correlation | 0.255 | −0.129 | |
Sig. (2-tailed) | 0.160 | 0.481 |
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Ragadran, J.; Kamal Nor, N.; Ismail, J.; Ong, J.J.; Sundaraj, C. Estimating the Risk of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in Parents of Children with ADHD and the Association with Their Children’s Disease Severity and Adherence to Medication. Children 2023, 10, 1440. https://doi.org/10.3390/children10091440
Ragadran J, Kamal Nor N, Ismail J, Ong JJ, Sundaraj C. Estimating the Risk of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in Parents of Children with ADHD and the Association with Their Children’s Disease Severity and Adherence to Medication. Children. 2023; 10(9):1440. https://doi.org/10.3390/children10091440
Chicago/Turabian StyleRagadran, Jananheendaran, Norazlin Kamal Nor, Juriza Ismail, Jun Jean Ong, and Charlotte Sundaraj. 2023. "Estimating the Risk of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in Parents of Children with ADHD and the Association with Their Children’s Disease Severity and Adherence to Medication" Children 10, no. 9: 1440. https://doi.org/10.3390/children10091440
APA StyleRagadran, J., Kamal Nor, N., Ismail, J., Ong, J. J., & Sundaraj, C. (2023). Estimating the Risk of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in Parents of Children with ADHD and the Association with Their Children’s Disease Severity and Adherence to Medication. Children, 10(9), 1440. https://doi.org/10.3390/children10091440