2. Method
2.1. Design
The methodology used was quantitative, with a descriptive, nonexperimental, and cross-sectional design. The maternal variables of interest were described on the basis of self-report questionnaires and the observation of mother–child interactions by filming them for 5 min in a semi-directed playful interaction.
2.2. Participants
The study included 81 mothers and their 3–4 year old children who attended seven preschools belonging to the National Preschool Association, located in the Metropolitan Region and serving a mid- to low-SES population. Only mothers who were their children’s main caregivers were included.
Sample size was calculated using the G power program for complex statistical analysis (in this case, linear regressions). It was calculated a priori, hoping to obtain a statistical power of 0.80. A median effect size f2 = 0.15 was considered, with a significance level of α = 0.05, obtaining a necessary sample size of 92 people to reach a statistical power of 0.80. The significance level was established according to the convention in the field of psychology research to set the confidence level of the estimate at 0.05 [
30]. Given that the sample reached was 81 people, the statistical power was recalculated, obtaining a result of 0.74, approaching the expected power.
2.3. Procedure and Analysis
Participants were recruited through preschools of the National Preschool Association. After contacting seven preschools and presenting the project to them, parents of the upper intermediate level (3–4 year old children) were invited to participate voluntarily. The mothers signed an informed consent letter, while the children gave their verbal assent to participate. The assessment procedure was conducted in the preschools. Administration and coding were carried out by raters previously trained by experts. The Scientific Ethics Committee of the institution that developed this research approved this study (approval code 1130786-2013).
In the first place, the observers were certified as PICCOLLO coders with an individual reliable score; then, they calibrated amongst themselves until they reached the desired score to be able to start codifying the videos of this study. The data analysis stage first involved descriptive results of frequency of the variables of interest, followed by a correlation analysis to evaluate the degree of association between the variables of interest in the adult (presence of childhood trauma and maternal depressive symptomatology), while controlling some variables such as the education level. Lastly, multiple regression models were used to evaluate the impact of childhood trauma and depressive symptomatology on the parental competences observed (affection, responsiveness, encouragement, and teaching), considering each of the subitems of the scales employed. The analysis was conducted using SPSS v21.
2.4. Instruments
Parenting Interactions with Children: Checklist of Observations Linked to Outcomes (PICCOLO) (for interaction between mother and child) [
1]. This instrument measures positive parenting through the observation of a mother–child routine interaction and was developed to encourage behaviors in parents that support children’s early development. It contains 29 items that measure parental development, according to the theory of early child development. These items are grouped into four domains: affection, responsiveness, encouragement, and teaching. The instrument provides subtotals for each dimension with a maximum of 68 points. Specific cutoff scores for each dimension were obtained from [
1]. The average ranges of scores are 9–12 points for the affection dimension, 10–13 points for responsiveness, 8–12 points for encouragement, and 6–11 points for teaching. The original instrument has a reliability index of 0.78. In the present study, two raters were required to achieve a kappa index of 0.79. Cronbach’s alphas for the affection, responsiveness, encouragement, and teaching domains reached values of 0.56, 0.72, 0.62, and 0.72 respectively. Due to the low reliability of the affection dimension, it was not included in the current analysis. The videos were codified by two qualified observers; before starting to watch the videos and score each item, they were calibrated to reach the desired inter-reliability score.
Beck Depression Inventory (BDI-I) (mothers). The BDI is an instrument developed by Beck [
31] that has been extensively used in multiple studies due to its straightforward administration and tabulation. This instrument assesses the presence of depressive symptomatology in adults and adolescents aged 13 years and up through a self-response questionnaire that comprises 21 Likert-type items that describe the most frequent clinical symptoms of depression sufferers, such as sadness, crying, loss of pleasure, feelings of failure and guilt, suicidal thoughts or wishes, and pessimism. Each item is made up of four statements about the intensity of the symptom, ranging from 0 (absent or mild) to 3 (very intense). If the person selects several response categories in an item, the category with the highest score is considered. The instrument yields an overall score ranging from 0 (minimum) to 63 points (maximum), with higher scores representing a more extensive presence of depressive symptomatology and, consequently, more risk. Cutoff scores were established in order to group respondents into the following categories: 0–13, minimum depression; 14–19, mild depression; 20–28, moderate depression; 29–63, severe depression. This instrument has shown a high degree of internal consistency in clinical and nonclinical samples, with an alpha coefficient of approximately 0.82 [
31].
Childhood Trauma Questionnaire Short Form (CTQ) (mothers). The abbreviated CTQ is an instrument developed by [
32] which assesses the presence of traumatic events in childhood. It is short, easy to administer, and relatively noninvasive. This widely used scale comprises 28 Likert-type items that can be completed in 5–10 min and can be administered from 12 years of age onward. It includes five subscales that make it possible to identify traumatic childhood experiences involving emotional, physical, and sexual abuse, as well as emotional and physical neglect. Each answer belongs to one or more subscales and can be assigned a score between 1 and 5. Cutoff points are defined to determine the type of maltreatment experienced: under 5, no trauma; over 6, sexual abuse; over 8, physical abuse and neglect; over 12, emotional abuse; over 13, emotional neglect. This instrument has been shown to have good psychometric properties, adequately fitting the five-factor structure in clinical and nonclinical samples It has an internal consistency of 0.95 and an alpha coefficient of 0.9 [
32].
Sociodemographic questionnaire (mothers). The sociodemographic questionnaire used in this study was developed by the research team in order to collect information to characterize the sample. It included family-related and individual aspects of the preschooler included in the sample, along with information about the socioeconomic and educational level of the participating adult.
4. Conclusions and Discussion
The present study analyzed parental interactions in connection to the presence of maternal childhood trauma and depressive symptomatology. In addition, the study analyzed whether mothers’ education level had an impact on the variables studied, considering the evidence for the influence of this variable on parenting [
2,
5]. The study was mainly focused on parental interactions and maternal childhood trauma because this is a relatively unexplored dimension in the Chilean context. This aspect is relevant due to the high prevalence of child maltreatment and depressive symptomatology in women of childbearing age in Chile [
33].
It was observed that 19% of the mothers displayed depressive symptomatology, a significantly lower rate than the national average of 27.9% for the female population in Chile. The sample appears not to behave in the same way as the mid- to low-SES Chilean population. Regarding the quality of parental interactions, a comparison with the US original sample revealed that the Chilean sample displayed better teaching interactions; however, this was not true of the encouragement dimension, as the Chilean mothers in the sample studied behaved less encouragingly with their children. In the case of responsive interactions, quality remained stable.
The results obtained indicate that the presence of trauma in mothers’ childhood has a strong impact on their future parenting. Mothers who have experienced emotional and psychological deficits in childhood due to their caregivers’ emotional negligence in terms of providing love, a sense of belonging, care, and support will find it more difficult to properly foster their children’s autonomy, interests, decision-making skills, motivation to tackle new challenges, and cognitive, social, and linguistic development. The stimulation of children’s interests and their ability to decide will be lower in mothers who have experienced emotional neglect in childhood, which is consistent with the existing literature [
34]. Emotionally neglected mothers will have difficulty being emotionally available, which usually leads to their failure to value children’s efforts [
35]. In addition, they tend to interact with them in a hostile way [
36]. Furthermore, the presence of emotional neglect in childhood is positively correlated with lower levels of maternal sensitivity [
37].
If a mother’s parents or caregivers had difficulties meeting her emotional and psychological needs (in other words, if they failed to provide her with a psychological space), she will be less likely to encourage her child’s autonomy. In view of this, these mothers’ daughters may find it hard to replicate as mothers that which they never experienced in childhood, as suggested by the transgenerational cycle of abuse. Therefore, when these girls become mothers, they will not have internalized the interaction models that would have allowed them to validate their children considering their needs, interests, and wishes, which is indicative of low levels of mother–child affective synchrony. Unmet emotional and psychological needs in childhood lead to a reduction in mothers’ affective and reciprocal behaviors, such as changing the rhythm of an activity or shifting to a different one altogether depending on the child’s interests or needs, following what they are doing, responding to the emotions expressed by the child, and looking at or responding to them when they speak or utters a sound.
In the present study, reported trauma in the mother’s childhood was not found to be linked to more depressive symptomatology. This finding is not consistent with the literature [
9,
17,
22,
38], but there is evidence that resilience can significantly counter trauma, even mitigating depressive symptoms [
39]. Nevertheless, this weak association may be due to the low prevalence of depressive symptomatology observed in the sample and its low comorbidity. Therefore, the lack of a connection between these conditions should not be regarded as a significant factor for understanding trauma.
When trauma was reported, specifically sexual abuse in the mother’s childhood, the quality of parental interactions was not found to be lower. This is not consistent with most of the literature [
11,
40], although some researchers did not observe this association [
11,
41]. It is important to state that sexual abuse may have occurred outside of the nuclear family, and the family may have intervened in an adequate and protective manner. On the other hand, the joint presence of childhood trauma and depressive symptomatology in the mother may not fully account for the reduction in parental competences. This is not in line with the literature, which has identified strong associations between a history of childhood abuse and depressive symptomatology in adulthood, along with suboptimal childrearing patterns [
11].
The present study showed that the presence of depressive symptomatology in this nonclinical sample of mothers did not significantly impact parental interactions, and that trauma can be singled out as the main culprit of their deterioration. In this regard, trauma characterized by emotional abandonment by mothers’ significant figures in childhood is believed to be the best predictor of a reduction in parental interaction quality. This is especially important given the predictive weight ascribed to traumatic experiences in early childhood with respect to the victim’s future parenting [
15]. Nevertheless, the associations found may be conditioned by the limited presence of depressive symptomatology in the sample.
The non-incidence of depressive symptomatology on parental interactions may be explained by the fact that the sample used was nonclinical and displayed a minimum or mild degree of depressive symptoms. Likewise, due to the voluntary nature of these studies, they require some degree of psychic energy to deal with the assessments involved; therefore, the participating mothers may display less symptoms and resistance. Considering this, one of the limitations of the present study was the lack of information about whether the participants had previously received psychotherapeutic care (which would have allowed them to work through their trauma or depressive symptomatology) and whether they were taking some type of medication. In addition, the limitations of self-report questionnaires must also be mentioned. The homogeneity of the sample in terms of SES and education levels (middle to lower class), as well as its size, constitutes another limitation. Lastly, another potential limitation may be related to the low Cronbach’s alpha values calculated for the encouragement domain and the fact that the PICCOLO and CTQ have not been validated for Chile.
This study is relevant since it opens the discussion on the importance of mental health factors that influence parenting in early childhood and, therefore, the optimal emotional development of children. Future studies could consider additional factors such as parental stress, which could have a major influence on parental competences due to parents’ physical or emotional fatigue. This may affect their attitude and the time that they devote to their children, having a strong impact on the quality of play. The main clinical and research implications derived from this study are the need to examine the mother’s family history, as well as her prior and/or current treatments, when the child is the reason for seeking help, to reduce mothers’ stigmatization as bad caregivers and promote empathy with them if they have a history of childhood neglect. Future research could include child-related variables, considering children’s reactions and including psychoeducational or feedback interventions, as well as subsequent measures intended to follow up the progress made by mothers and their children. Another potential line of research could involve generating comparative models of interactions between fathers and mothers if one of them has experienced maltreatment in childhood.