Ocular Toxicities of Anticancer Therapies in the Era of Precision Oncology: A Practical, Clinically Oriented Narrative Review
1
Oncology Department, Istituto Ospedaliero Fondazione Poliambulanza, Via Leonida Bissolati, 57, 25124 Brescia, Italy
2
Oncology Unit, ASST Bergamo Ovest, Piazzale Ospedale 1, 24047 Treviglio, Italy
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Biomedicines 2026, 14(3), 601; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines14030601
Submission received: 10 February 2026
/
Revised: 26 February 2026
/
Accepted: 6 March 2026
/
Published: 8 March 2026
(This article belongs to the Section Cancer Biology and Oncology)
Simple Summary
Recent advances in cancer treatment, including targeted therapies, immune checkpoint inhibitors, and antibody–drug conjugates, have substantially improved patient outcomes. However, these therapies are also associated with a growing range of adverse effects, including ocular toxicities that are increasingly encountered in clinical practice. Eye-related side effects are often subtle and nonspecific and may be underestimated or misattributed to aging or systemic illness. Delayed recognition can negatively affect quality of life, lead to treatment modifications, and, in some cases, result in permanent visual impairment. This narrative review summarizes the main ocular toxicities associated with modern anticancer therapies, discusses their underlying biological mechanisms, and provides practical recommendations for prevention, monitoring, and clinical management to support both visual preservation and optimal cancer care.
Abstract
The introduction of modern anticancer therapies, including targeted therapies (TTs), immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs), and antibody–drug conjugates (ADCs), has significantly improved survival across a wide range of malignancies. At the same time, these agents have expanded the spectrum of treatment-related adverse events, with ocular toxicities emerging as a clinically relevant and increasingly recognized complication. Ocular adverse events may affect multiple anatomical structures, including the ocular surface, cornea, anterior and posterior segments, and optic nerve, often reflecting drug class-specific biological mechanisms. The pathogenesis of ocular toxicity is multifactorial and includes on-target inhibition of signaling pathways expressed in ocular tissues, off-target effects on rapidly renewing epithelia, non-specific uptake of cytotoxic payloads in ADCs, immune-mediated inflammation associated with ICIs, and microvascular dysregulation observed with selected targeted agents, such as mitogen-activated protein kinase (MEK) inhibitors. Because ocular adverse events are inconsistently reported in clinical trials and frequently described through case reports or pharmacovigilance data, their true incidence is likely underestimated and management strategies remain heterogeneous. This narrative review provides an overview of the epidemiology, biological mechanisms, and clinical manifestations of ocular toxicities associated with contemporary anticancer therapies. In addition, it offers practical, mechanism-based recommendations for prevention, monitoring, and stepwise management, emphasizing the importance of multidisciplinary collaboration to preserve visual function while maintaining effective oncologic treatment.
