Fine Particulate Air Pollution, Public Service, and Under-Five Mortality: A Cross-Country Empirical Study
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Research Plan and Technical Preparation
2.1. Research Hypothesis
2.2. Baseline Model
2.3. Variable and Data
2.3.1. Variable Measurement
2.3.2. Data and Descriptive Statistics
2.4. Panel Unit Root and Cointegration Tests
3. Results and Discussions of the Impacts of Fine Particulate Air Pollution on U5MR
3.1. Full Sample Results
3.2. Results in Different Countries
4. Does Public Service Influence the PM2.5-Mortality Relationship?
4.1. Panel Threshold Model Setting
4.2. Threshold Examination and Analysis
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Symbol | Definition | Unit | Mean | Std | Min | Max |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
U5MR | Under-five mortality rate | ‰ | 27.87 | 32.32 | 2.0 | 189.5 |
lnPM | Log form of annual PM2.5 concentrations | ug/m3 | 2.66 | 0.62 | 0.34 | 4.08 |
lnEco | Log form of GDP per capita | dollar | 8.84 | 1.49 | 5.23 | 11.61 |
lnPD | Log form of population density | kilometer | 4.25 | 1.25 | 0.89 | 8.95 |
Urb | Urbanization level | % | 61.20 | 20.91 | 8.55 | 100 |
Inno | Ratio of RD expenditure to GDP | % | 0.86 | 0.89 | 0.00 | 4.29 |
lnEdu | Log form of average schooling years | year | 2.07 | 0.44 | 0.34 | 2.57 |
lnHE | Log form of health expenditure per capita | dollar | 6.07 | 1.68 | 2.25 | 9.18 |
Levels | Diff | |||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
LLC | HT | Breitung | IPS | ADF | PP | LLC | HT | Breitung | IPS | ADF | PP | |
U5MR | −2.94 (0.02) | 0.72 (1.00) | 3.29 (1.00) | 9.32 (1.00) | 306.3 (<0.01) | 403.0 (<0.01) | −11.81 (<0.01) | −0.02 (<0.01) | 2.54 (0.99) | −3.66 (<0.01) | 183.3 (0.58) | 449.5 (<0.01) |
lnPM | 2.49 (0.99) | 0.03 (<0.01) | 0.66 (0.75) | −3.57 (<0.01) | 353.4 (<0.01) | 928.9 (<0.01) | −7.24 (<0.01) | −0.37 (<0.01) | −4.13 (<0.01) | −17.1 (<0.01) | 742.2 (<0.01) | 2995.6 (<0.01) |
lnEco | 0.51 (0.70) | 0.80 (1.00) | 1.46 (0.93) | 3.20 (1.00) | 197.4 (0.30) | 275.9 (<0.01) | −6.81 (<0.01) | 0.33 (<0.01) | −3.86 (<0.01) | −7.40 (<0.01) | 273.5 (<0.01) | 844.1 (<0.01) |
lnPD | 1.83 (0.97) | 0.84 (1.00) | −1.31 (0.09) | 0.45 (0.67) | 158.3 (0.94) | 417.8 (<0.01) | −4.14 (<0.01) | 0.41 (<0.01) | 0.65 (0.74) | −3.92 (<0.01) | 286.8 (<0.01) | 455.6 (<0.01) |
Urb | 17.8 (1.00) | 0.76 (1.00) | 4.91 (1.00) | 4.63 (1.00) | 593.9 (<0.01) | 1301.2 (<0.01) | 4.03 (1.00) | 0.67 (<0.01) | 6.35 (1.00) | −1.74 (0.04) | 1019.9 (<0.01) | 700.2 (<0.01) |
Inno | −5.09 (<0.01) | 0.59 (0.29) | −0.88 (0.19) | −1.93 (0.03) | 171.3 (0.80) | 259.9 (<0.01) | −10.92 (<0.01) | −0.10 (<0.01) | −4.07 (<0.01) | −11.2 (<0.01) | 318.2 (<0.01) | 1714.8 (<0.01) |
lnEdu | −1.87 (0.03) | 0.87 (1.00) | −2.51 (0.01) | −0.85 (0.20) | 209.2 (0.14) | 164.6 (0.89) | −10.64 (<0.01) | 0.61 (<0.01) | −0.78 (0.22) | −5.79 (0.05) | 176.5 (0.72) | 329.9 (<0.01) |
lnHE | −2.65 (<0.01) | 0.67 (0.99) | 0.64 (0.74) | −1.76 (0.04) | 363.4 (<0.01) | 259.9 (<0.01) | −8.92 (<0.01) | 0.29 (<0.01) | −3.04 (<0.01) | −15.68 (<0.01) | 359.5 (<0.01) | 946.9 (<0.01) |
Types of Tests for Cointegration | Types of Test Statistics | Statistic | p-Value |
---|---|---|---|
Kao test | Modified DF t | 6.155 | <0.01 |
DF t | 1.952 | 0.026 | |
ADF t | 4.556 | <0.01 | |
Unadjusted DF t | 3.609 | <0.01 | |
Unadjusted DF t | −1.395 | 0.082 | |
Pedroni test | Modified PP t | 16.020 | <0.01 |
PP t | −16.049 | <0.01 | |
ADF t | −14.319 | <0.01 | |
Westerlund test | Variance ratio | 3.830 | <0.01 |
Variables | Dependent Variable: Under-Five Mortality Rate (U5MR, ‰) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
FE (Baseline) | FE (Alterative Measurement) | FE (Winsorization) | FE-IV1 | FE-IV2 | |
lnPM | 3.796 *** | 3.984 *** | 2.308 ** | 22.37 *** | 10.97 *** |
(3.38) | (4.02) | (2.05) | (4.39) | (5.44) | |
lnEco | −30.99 *** | −30.84 *** | −27.95 *** | −35.13 *** | −33.00 *** |
(−21.50) | (−21.68) | (−15.61) | (−17.11) | (−21.52) | |
InPD | −101.7 *** | −102.0 *** | −108.1 *** | −108.2 *** | −106.2 *** |
(−29.62) | (−29.82) | (−32.81) | (−23.11) | (−29.24) | |
Urb | 0.174 * | 0.168 * | 0.197 ** | −0.068 | 0.092 |
(1.76) | (1.71) | (2.03) | (−0.56) | (0.91) | |
Inno | −4.376 *** | −4.288 *** | −4.634 *** | −5.162 *** | −4.603 *** |
(−5.05) | (−4.96) | (−5.25) | (−5.44) | (−5.23) | |
lnEdu | −15.28 *** | −14.63 *** | −7.115 ** | −7.212 * | −12.90 *** |
(−4.26) | (−4.07) | (−2.08) | (−1.66) | (−3.51) | |
lnHE | 4.880 *** | 4.895 *** | 1.579 * | 6.293 *** | 5.112 *** |
(9.48) | (9.53) | (1.91) | (9.29) | (9.75) | |
Constant | 713.3 *** | 712.3 *** | 720.8 *** | 729.4 *** | 729.0 *** |
(38.18) | (38.34) | (37.47) | (31.49) | (37.81) | |
Year dummy | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
F test | 126.16 *** | 127.27 *** | 126.73 *** | ||
Hausman test | 688.68 *** | 727.50 *** | 1009.07 *** | ||
N | 1598 | 1598 | 1598 | 1504 | 1598 |
R2 | 0.708 | 0.709 | 0.697 | 0.639 | 0.700 |
Under-Five Mortality Rate (‰) | PM2.5 Concentrations (ug/m3) | |
---|---|---|
Developed economies | 6.40 | 14.01 |
Economies in transition and developing economies | 29.94 | 17.98 |
Least developed countries | 95.21 | 23.17 |
Variables | Dependent Variable: Under-Five Mortality Rate (U5MR, ‰) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
FE (Baseline) | FE (Alterative Measurement) | FE-IV1 | FE-IV2 | |
lnPM | −0.131 | 0.184 | 0.606 | −0.063 |
(−0.40) | (0.64) | (0.31) | (−0.10) | |
lnEco | −9.081 *** | −9.035 *** | −8.118 *** | −9.069 *** |
(−13.69) | (−13.65) | (−10.96) | (−13.52) | |
InPD | 9.220 *** | 9.214 *** | 9.282 *** | 9.228 *** |
(7.85) | (7.85) | (7.25) | (7.84) | |
Urb | −0.0515 * | −0.0496 * | −0.0397 | −0.0509 * |
(−1.85) | (−1.79) | (−1.15) | (−1.79) | |
Inno | 0.0726 | 0.0703 | 0.0301 | 0.0715 |
(0.41) | (0.39) | (0.17) | (0.40) | |
lnEdu | 0.0978 | 0.150 | 0.510 | 0.104 |
(0.08) | (0.13) | (0.41) | (0.09) | |
lnHE | 1.010 *** | 1.018 *** | 0.711 *** | 1.011 *** |
(3.97) | (4.00) | (2.70) | (3.97) | |
Constant | 57.30 *** | 55.76 *** | 43.03 ** | 56.90 *** |
(4.88) | (4.79) | (2.52) | (4.65) | |
Year dummy | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
F test | 132.79 *** | 131.80 *** | ||
Hausman test | 108.07 *** | 113.36 *** | ||
N | 612 | 612 | 576 | 612 |
R2 | 0.816 | 0.816 | 0.804 | 0.816 |
Variables | Dependent Variable: Under-Five Mortality Rate (U5MR, ‰) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
FE (Baseline) | FE (Alterative Measurement) | FE-IV1 | FE-IV2 | |
lnPM | 5.767 *** | 5.410 *** | 28.27 *** | 9.643 *** |
(5.40) | (5.97) | (4.02) | (5.32) | |
lnEco | −20.41 *** | −20.24 *** | −20.50 *** | −20.81 *** |
(−12.03) | (−11.99) | (−8.95) | (−12.11) | |
InPD | −70.81 *** | −70.93 *** | −78.67 *** | −73.26 *** |
(−16.06) | (−16.18) | (−11.82) | (−16.13) | |
Urb | −0.0159 | −0.0122 | −0.309 ** | −0.063 |
(−0.18) | (−0.14) | (−2.17) | (−0.68) | |
Inno | −0.756 | −0.599 | −2.062 * | −0.962 |
(−0.78) | (−0.62) | (−1.65) | (−0.98) | |
lnEdu | 12.54 *** | 13.10 *** | 31.09 *** | 15.33 *** |
(3.52) | (3.68) | (4.56) | (4.09) | |
lnHE | 3.061 *** | 3.080 *** | 4.138 *** | 3.095 *** |
(5.44) | (5.50) | (4.98) | (5.45) | |
Constant | 449.6 *** | 449.1 *** | 395.9 *** | 450.3 *** |
(17.33) | (17.38) | (11.07) | (17.20) | |
Year dummy | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
F test | 186.19 *** | 190.78 *** | ||
Hausman test | 198.37 *** | 210.89 *** | ||
N | 816 | 816 | 768 | 816 |
R2 | 0.741 | 0.743 | 0.557 | 0.737 |
Variables | Dependent Variable: Under-Five Mortality Rate (U5MR, ‰) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
RE (Baseline) | RE (Alterative Measurement) | RE-IV1 | RE-IV2 | |
lnPM | 12.11 * | 12.97 * | 21.56 ** | 28.56 *** |
(1.71) | (1.70) | (2.02) | (2.80) | |
lnEco | −3.258 | −3.224 | −10.59 * | −9.468 |
(−0.56) | (−0.56) | (−1.70) | (−1.47) | |
InPD | −42.85 *** | −41.85 *** | −43.01 *** | −47.69 *** |
(−5.49) | (−5.47) | (−5.64) | (−5.82) | |
Urb | −0.422 | −0.472 | −0.555 | −0.727 |
(−0.75) | (−0.82) | (−1.01) | (−1.24) | |
Inno | −18.18 *** | −17.68 *** | −17.42 *** | −18.18 *** |
(−3.82) | (−3.71) | (−3.64) | (−3.75) | |
lnEdu | −6.103 | −5.700 | −0.829 | −0.460 |
(−0.59) | (−0.55) | (−0.08) | (−0.04) | |
lnHE | −1.242 | −1.198 | −0.963 | −1.041 |
(−0.88) | (−0.84) | (−0.57) | (−0.72) | |
Constant | 302.8 *** | 298.1 *** | 267.3 *** | 310.5 *** |
(5.68) | (5.62) | (4.78) | (5.75) | |
Year dummy | YES | YES | YES | YES |
F test | 38.01 *** | 37.36 *** | ||
Hausman test | 31.23 | 21.82 | ||
N | 170 | 170 | 160 | 170 |
Threshold Variable | No. of Thresholds | F-Value | p-Value | Threshold Estimates | 95% Confidence Interval |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Public education spending | Single | 95.39 *** | 0.002 | 3.39% | [3.37%, 3.41%] |
Double | 37.18 * | 0.066 | 5.47% | [5.40%, 5.49%] | |
Triple | 29.12 | 0.332 | 4.24% | [4.20%, 4.25%] | |
Sanitation service | Single | 141.06 ** | 0.010 | 41.3% | [41.1%, 41.9%] |
Double | 40.34 | 0.456 | 70.5% | [69.3%, 70.8%] |
Coefficients | Public Education Spending as Threshold Variable | Sanitation Service as Threshold Variable |
---|---|---|
lnPM I(PESit ≤ 3.39%) | 5.870 *** (5.34) | |
lnPM I(3.39% < PESit ≤ 5.47%) | 3.817 *** (3.53) | |
lnPM I(5.47% < PESit) | 2.535 ** (2.32) | |
lnPM I(SEit ≤ 41.3%) | 8.581 *** (7.45) | |
lnPM I(41.3% < SEit) | 3.432 *** (3.19) | |
lnEco | −32.52 *** (−23.25) | −31.27 *** (−22.64) |
lnPO | −97.78 *** (−29.30) | −94.39 *** (−28.16) |
Urb | 0.207 ** (2.18) | 0.152 (1.61) |
lnno | −4.050 *** (−4.85) | −3.346 *** (−4.01) |
lnEdu | −15.47 *** (−4.47) | −14.83 *** (−4.31) |
lnHE | 5.171 *** (10.42) | 4.606 *** (9.33) |
Constant | 705.3 *** (39.18) | 685.2 *** (37.93) |
Year dummy | Yes | Yes |
N | 1598 | 1598 |
R2 | 0.730 | 0.732 |
Threshold Variables | Regime | Ratio of Countries in Each Regime |
---|---|---|
Public education spending | PES ≤ 3.39% | 26.35% |
3.39% < PES ≤ 5.47% | 50.25% | |
5.47% < PES | 23.40% | |
Sanitation service | SE ≤ 41.3% | 10.89% |
41.3% < SE | 89.11% |
© 2020 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
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Liu, S.; Wei, Q.; Failler, P.; Lan, H. Fine Particulate Air Pollution, Public Service, and Under-Five Mortality: A Cross-Country Empirical Study. Healthcare 2020, 8, 271. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare8030271
Liu S, Wei Q, Failler P, Lan H. Fine Particulate Air Pollution, Public Service, and Under-Five Mortality: A Cross-Country Empirical Study. Healthcare. 2020; 8(3):271. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare8030271
Chicago/Turabian StyleLiu, Siming, Qing Wei, Pierre Failler, and Hong Lan. 2020. "Fine Particulate Air Pollution, Public Service, and Under-Five Mortality: A Cross-Country Empirical Study" Healthcare 8, no. 3: 271. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare8030271