Opportunistic Eye Disease Screening in Mazovia, Poland: Lessons from a Local Government Program: “Good Vision for Mazovians”
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design and Population
2.2. Measures
- Intraocular pressure elevated above 21 mmHg, weighted with central corneal thickness correction measured in tonometry.
- Optic nerve damage assessed in OCT scans is shown as retinal nerve fiber layer loss.
- Reports suggesting glaucoma from Fundus Imaging System, such as an enlarged optic cup or a large cup-to-disc ratio, vertical elongation of the cup, notching or thinning of the neuroretinal rim, and nasal displacement of the vessels.
2.3. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
Have You Visited an Ophthalmologist in the Last 2 Years?—“Yes” | Do You Have Difficulty Accessing an Ophthalmologist in Your Region?—“Yes” | In Your Place of Residence, Is There Access to an Optician’s Shop Where You Can Buy Glasses or Contact Lenses?—“Yes” | Would You Like to Improve Your Knowledge About Eye Diseases?—“Yes” | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
n | % | p | n | % | p | n | % | p | n | % | p | |
Overall (n = 1812) | 750 | 41.4 | 1033 | 57.0 | 1151 | 63.5 | 1158 | 63.9 | ||||
Variable | ||||||||||||
Gender | ||||||||||||
Female (n = 1081) | 481 | 44.5 | 0.001 | 669 | 61.9 | <0.001 | 912 | 84.4 | 0.2 | 969 | 88.7 | 0.09 |
Male (n = 731) | 269 | 36.8 | 364 | 49.8 | 599 | 81.9 | 629 | 86.0 | ||||
Age | ||||||||||||
<30 (n = 73) | 38 | 52.1 | <0.001 | 17 | 23.3 | <0.001 | 64 | 87.7 | 0.1 | 57 | 78.1 | <0.001 |
30–39 (n = 94) | 31 | 33.0 | 38 | 40.4 | 84 | 89.4 | 75 | 79.8 | ||||
40–49 (n = 292) | 105 | 36.0 | 142 | 48.6 | 255 | 87.3 | 243 | 83.2 | ||||
50–59 (n = 291) | 100 | 34.4 | 158 | 54.3 | 245 | 84.2 | 258 | 88.7 | ||||
60–69 (n = 513) | 208 | 40.5 | 334 | 65.1 | 418 | 81.5 | 467 | 91.0 | ||||
70–79 (n = 465) | 222 | 47.7 | 288 | 61.0 | 377 | 81.1 | 415 | 89.2 | ||||
80+ (n = 84) | 46 | 54.8 | 56 | 66.7 | 68 | 81.0 | 73 | 86.9 | ||||
Educational level | ||||||||||||
Primary (n = 108) | 43 | 39.8 | 0.002 | 67 | 62.0 | 0.07 | 67 | 62.0 | <0.001 | 88 | 81.5 | 0.06 |
Vocational (n = 370) | 113 | 35.9 | 223 | 60.3 | 268 | 72.4 | 334 | 90.3 | ||||
Secondary (n = 715) | 281 | 39.3 | 415 | 58.0 | 615 | 86.0 | 632 | 88.4 | ||||
Higher (n = 619) | 293 | 47.3 | 328 | 53.0 | 561 | 90.6 | 534 | 86.3 | ||||
Taking medications on a regular basis | ||||||||||||
Yes (n = 1137) | 507 | 44.6 | <0.001 | 697 | 61.3 | <0.001 | 938 | 82.5 | 0.2 | 1018 | 89.5 | 0.001 |
No (n = 675) | 243 | 36.0 | 336 | 49.8 | 573 | 84.9 | 570 | 84.4 | ||||
Do you smoke cigarettes, use e-cigarettes, or heated tobacco? | ||||||||||||
Yes (n = 306) | 121 | 39.5 | 0.5 | 189 | 61.8 | 0.07 | 252 | 82.4 | 0.6 | 262 | 85.6 | 0.2 |
No (n = 1506) | 629 | 41.8 | 844 | 56.0 | 1259 | 83.6 | 1326 | 88.0 | ||||
Research site | ||||||||||||
No 1. (Bodzanów) (n = 159) | 53 | 33.3 | 0.2 | 99 | 62.3 | <0.001 | 51 | 32.1 | <0.001 | 138 | 86.8 | 0.001 |
No 2. (Ciechanów) (n = 289) | 113 | 39.1 | 201 | 69.6 | 250 | 86.5 | 255 | 88.2 | ||||
No 3. (Warsaw–Wilanów District) (n = 107) | 41 | 38.3 | 47 | 43.9 | 96 | 92.9 | 83 | 77.6 | ||||
No 4. (Legionowo) (n = 108) | 41 | 38.0 | 38 | 35.2 | 101 | 93.5 | 93 | 86.1 | ||||
No 5. (Ostrołęka) (n = 148) | 67 | 45.3 | 83 | 56.1 | 129 | 87.2 | 133 | 89.9 | ||||
No 6. (Płock) (n = 319) | 140 | 43.9 | 237 | 74.3 | 283 | 88.7 | 300 | 94.0 | ||||
No 7. (Radom) (n = 335) | 135 | 40.3 | 176 | 52.5 | 288 | 86.0 | 290 | 86.6 | ||||
No 8. (Siedlce) (n = 170) | 78 | 45.9 | 60 | 35.3 | 158 | 92.9 | 147 | 86.5 | ||||
No 9. (Żyrardów) (n = 177) | 82 | 46.3 | 92 | 52.0 | 155 | 87.6 | 149 | 84.2 |
4. Discussion
Limitations
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
- GBD 2019 Blindness and Vision Impairment Collaborators. Trends in Prevalence of Blindness and Distance and near Vision Impairment over 30 Years: An Analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study. Lancet Glob. Health 2020, 9, e130–e143. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Teo, Z.L.; Tham, Y.-C.; Yu, M.; Chee, M.L.; Rim, T.H.; Cheung, N.; Bikbov, M.M.; Wang, Y.X.; Tang, Y.; Lu, Y.; et al. Global Prevalence of Diabetic Retinopathy and Projection of Burden through 2045: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Ophthalmology 2021, 128, 1580–1591. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lin, Y.; Jiang, B.; Cai, Y.; Luo, W.; Zhu, X.; Lin, Q.; Tang, M.; Li, X.; Xie, L. The Global Burden of Glaucoma: Findings from the Global Burden of Disease 2019 Study and Predictions by Bayesian Age–Period–Cohort Analysis. J. Clin. Med. 2023, 12, 1828. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhou, Y.; Jia, W.; Song, J.; Li, M.; Dai, W.; Zou, J.; Zhou, J.; Chen, X.; Li, X. Burdens and Trends of Age-Related Macular Degeneration at Global, Regional, and National Levels,1990–2021: Findings from the 2021 Global Burden of Disease Study. Eye 2025, 39, 1517–1525. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- GBD 2019 Blindness and Vision Impairment Collaborators. Causes of Blindness and Vision Impairment in 2020 and Trends over 30 Years, and Prevalence of Avoidable Blindness in Relation to VISION 2020: The Right to Sight: An Analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study. Lancet Glob. Health 2020, 9, e144–e160. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sagan, A.; Panteli, D.; Borkowski, W.; Dmowski, M.; Domanski, F.; Czyżewski, M.; Goryński, P.; Karpacka, D.; Kiersztyn, E.; Kowalska, I.; et al. Poland health system review. Health Syst. Transit. 2011, 13, 1–193. [Google Scholar]
- Solomon, S.D.; Shoge, R.Y.; Ervin, A.M.; Contreras, M.; Harewood, J.; Aguwa, U.T.; Olivier, M.M.G. Improving Access to Eye Care A Systematic Review of the Literature. Ophthalmology 2022, 129, e114–e126. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kamińska, A.; Pinkas, J.; Jankowski, M. Factors Associated with the Frequency of Eye Examinations among Adults in Poland—A Nationwide Cross-Sectional Survey, December 2022. Ann. Agric. Environ. Med. 2023, 30, 287–295. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kamińska, A.; Pinkas, J.; Wrześniewska-Wal, I.; Ostrowski, J.; Jankowski, M. Awareness of Common Eye Diseases and Their Risk Factors—A Nationwide Cross-Sectional Survey among Adults in Poland. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2023, 20, 3594. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kamiński, M.; Jankowski, M.; Adamska, O.; Pinkas, J.; Kamińska, A. An Analysis of Health Policy Programmes on Eye Health Implemented by Local Government Units (LGUs) in Poland, 2015–2023. Ann. Agric. Environ. Med. 2024, 31, 388–394. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kurowska, P.; Królak, A.; Giermaziniak, W. Health policy programs realised in Poland in 2016–2017. Rocz. Państwowego Zakładu Hig. 2018, 69, 209–217. [Google Scholar]
- Founti, P.; Stuart, K.; Nolan, W.P.; Khawaja, A.P.; Foster, P.J. Screening Strategies and Methodologies. J. Glaucoma 2024, 33 (Suppl. S1), S15–S20. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hristova, E.; Koseva, D.; Zlatarova, Z.; Dokova, K. Diabetic Retinopathy Screening and Registration in Europe—Narrative Review. Healthcare 2021, 9, 745. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kozioł, M.; Nowak, M.S.; Udziela, M.; Piątkiewicz, P.; Grabska-Liberek, I.; Szaflik, J.P. First Nation-wide Study of Diabetic Retinopathy in Poland in the Years 2013–2017. Acta Diabetol. 2020, 57, 1255–1264. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Moghimi, S.; Weinreb, R.N. Screening of glaucoma: Consensus and directions. J. Glaucoma 2024, 33, S75–S77. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ben, Â.J.; Neyeloff, J.L.; de Souza, C.F.; Rosses, A.P.O.; de Araujo, A.L.; Szortika, A.; Locatelli, F.; de Carvalho, G.; Neumann, C.R. Cost-utility Analysis of Opportunistic and Systematic Diabetic Retinopathy Screening Strategies from the Perspective of the Brazilian Public Healthcare System. Appl. Health Econ. Health Policy 2020, 18, 57–68. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Alqahtani, A.S.; Alshareef, W.M.; Aljadani, H.T.; Hawsawi, W.O.; Shaheen, M.H. The Efficacy of Artificial Intelligence in Diabetic Retinopathy Screening: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Int. J. Retin. Vitr. 2025, 11, 48. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mazovia Heart of Poland. “Vision for Mazovians”. 2024. Available online: http://mazovia.pl/pl/zdrowie_i_polityka_spoleczna/aktualnosci/dobry-wzrok-mazowszan-zbadaj-sie.html (accessed on 24 July 2025).
- Spaeth, G.L. European Glaucoma Society Terminology and Guidelines for Glaucoma, 5th Edition. Br. J. Ophthalmol. 2021, 105 (Suppl. S1), 1–169. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- NICE Guideline. Age-Related Macular Degeneration Diagnosis and Management; National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE): London, UK, 2018; p. 82, ISBN-13: 978-1-4731-2787-6. [Google Scholar]
- Wilkinson, C.P.; Ferris, F.L., 3rd; Klein, R.E.; Lee, P.P.; Agardh, C.D.; Davis, M.; Dills, D.; Kampik, A.; Pararajasegaram, R.; Verdaguer, J.T. Global Diabetic Retinopathy Project Group. Proposed international clinical diabetic retinopathy and diabetic macular edema disease severity scales. Ophthalmology 2003, 110, 1677–1682. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Polish Diabetes Association. Clinical Recommendations for the Management of People with Diabetes—2024. Position of the Polish Diabetes Association. Off. J. Diabetes Pol. 2023, 4, 3–4. [Google Scholar]
- Nowak, M.S.; Smigielski, J. The Prevalence of Age-Related Eye Diseases and Cataract Surgery among Older Adults in the City of Lodz, Poland. J. Ophthalmol. 2015, 2015, 605814. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kamińska, A.; Pinkas, J.; Tyszko, P.; Wrześniewska-Wal, I.; Jankowski, M. Eye Care Behaviors among Adults in Poland: A Nationwide Cross-Sectional Survey. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public. Health 2023, 20, 3590. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Babaker, R.; Alzimami, L.; Al Ameer, A.; Almutairi, M.; Alam Aldeen, R.; Alshatti, H.; Al-Johani, N.; Al Taisan, A. Risk Factors for Age-Related Macular Degeneration: Updated Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Medicine 2025, 104, e41599. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Xu, D.; Xu, S.; Zheng, K.; Zhang, M. Barriers and Facilitators to Age-Friendly Health Care: A Scoping Review. J. Adv. Nurs. 2025, 81, 3564–3582. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rosdahl, J.A.; Swamy, L.; Stinnett, S.; Muir, K.W. Patient Education Preferences in Ophthalmic Care. Patient Prefer. Adherence 2014, 8, 565–574. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- European Council of Optometry and Optics. Regulation of the Optometric Profession in Poland. Available online: https://ecoo.info/2024/06/regulation-of-the-optometric-profession-in-poland/ (accessed on 7 September 2025).
- Journal of Laws of the Republic of Poland. Act of 17 August 2023 on Certain Medical Professions. Item 1972. Available online: https://api.sejm.gov.pl/eli/acts/DU/2023/1972/text.pdf (accessed on 7 September 2025).
Variable | n | % |
---|---|---|
Gender | ||
Female | 1081 | 59.7 |
Male | 731 | 40.3 |
Age | ||
<30 | 73 | 4.0 |
30–39 | 94 | 5.2 |
40–49 | 292 | 16.1 |
50–59 | 291 | 16.1 |
60–69 | 513 | 28.3 |
70–79 | 465 | 25.7 |
80+ | 84 | 4.6 |
Educational level | ||
Primary | 108 | 6.0 |
Vocational | 370 | 20.4 |
Secondary | 715 | 39.5 |
Higher | 619 | 34.2 |
Taking medications on a regular basis | ||
Yes | 1137 | 62.7 |
No | 675 | 37.3 |
Has a doctor ever diagnosed you with any chronic diseases? | ||
Hypertension | 748 | 41.3 |
Heart disease | 311 | 17.2 |
Lung disease | 120 | 6.6 |
Diabetes | 213 | 11.8 |
Do you smoke cigarettes, use e-cigarettes, or heated tobacco? | ||
Yes | 306 | 16.9 |
No | 1506 | 83.1 |
Research site | ||
No 1. (Bodzanów) | 159 | 8.8 |
No 2. (Ciechanów) | 289 | 15.9 |
No 3. (Wilanów District) | 107 | 5.9 |
No 4. (Legionowo) | 108 | 6.0 |
No 5. (Ostrołęka) | 148 | 8.2 |
No 6. (Płock) | 319 | 17.6 |
No 7. (Radom) | 335 | 18.5 |
No 8. (Siedlce) | 170 | 9.4 |
No 9. (Żyrardów) | 177 | 9.8 |
Variable | n | % |
---|---|---|
Do you wear glasses or contact lenses? | ||
Yes | 1081 | 59.7 |
No | 731 | 40.3 |
Have you ever been diagnosed with chronic eye diseases? | ||
Glaucoma | 69 | 3.8 |
AMD | 13 | 0.7 |
Diabetic retinopathy | 11 | 0.6 |
When did you last perform an eye examination? | ||
In the last month | 35 | 1.9 |
More than a month ago, but less than 12 months ago | 335 | 18.5 |
More than a year ago, but less than 2 years ago | 380 | 21.0 |
More than 2 years ago, but less than 3 years ago | 280 | 15.5 |
More than 3 years ago | 645 | 35.6 |
Never | 137 | 7.6 |
Have you visited an ophthalmologist in the last 2 years? | ||
Yes | 750 | 41.4 |
No | 1062 | 58.6 |
Do you have difficulty accessing an ophthalmologist in your region? | ||
Yes | 1033 | 57.0 |
No | 779 | 43.0 |
What problems with access to an ophthalmologist have you noticed in your place of residence? (n = 1033) | ||
Waiting time for a visit | 863 | 83.5 |
Distance of the clinic/ophthalmologist from the place of residence | 79 | 7.6 |
Transportation to the medical facility | 35 | 3.4 |
Cost of private visits to the ophthalmologist | 327 | 31.7 |
Lack of qualified ophthalmologist in the place of residence | 95 | 9.2 |
In your place of residence (e.g., city, municipality), is there access to an optician’s shop where you can buy glasses or contact lenses? | ||
Yes | 1511 | 83.4 |
No | 301 | 16.6 |
How would you rate your level of knowledge about eye diseases? | ||
Very low | 281 | 15.5 |
Rather low | 496 | 27.4 |
Average | 963 | 53.1 |
Rather high | 62 | 3.4 |
Very high | 10 | 0.6 |
Would you like to improve your knowledge about eye diseases? | ||
Yes | 1588 | 87.6 |
No | 224 | 12.4 |
Self-Declared Prior Medical Diagnosis of Eye Conditions (Before Participation in Screening) | Cases Suspected During the Examination | Newly Suspected Cases | Detected Cases That Are Consistent with the Previous Diagnosis | Cases Declared by the Patient but Not Detected During the Examination Through Screening | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Glaucoma | n | 69 | 69 | 38 | 31 | 38 |
% (95%CI) | 3.8 (3.0–4.8) | 3.8 (3.0–4.8) | 2.1 | 1.7 | 2.1 | |
AMD | n | 13 | 92 | 84 | 8 | 5 |
% (95%CI) | 0.7 (0.4–1.2) | 5.1 | 4.6 | 0.4 | 0.3 | |
Diabetic retinopathy | n | 11 | 29 | 21 | 8 | 3 |
% (95%CI) | 0.6 (0.3–1.1) | 1.6 | 1.2 | 0.4 | 0.2 |
Newly Detected Suspected Cases of Ophthalmological Disease | ||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Glaucoma | AMD | Diabetic Retinopathy | ||||||||||
Variable | n | % | 95%CI | p | n | % | 95%CI | p | n | % | 95%CI | p |
Gender | ||||||||||||
Female (n = 1081) | 22 | 2.0 | 1.4–3.0 | 0.8 | 55 | 5.1 | 3.9–6.6 | 0.3 | 16 | 1.5 | 0.9–2.4 | 0.1 |
Male (n = 731) | 16 | 2.2 | 1.4–3.5 | 29 | 4.0 | 2.8–5.6 | 5 | 0.7 | 0.3–1.6 | |||
Age | ||||||||||||
<30 (n = 73) | 0 | 0.0 | 0.0–5.0 | 0.7 | 0 | 0.0 | 0.0–5.0 | <0.001 | 0 | 0.0 | 0.0–5.0 | <0.001 |
30–39 (n = 94) | 1 | 1.1 | 0.2–5.8 | 1 | 1.0 | 0.2–5.8 | 0 | 0.0 | 0.0–3.9 | |||
40–49 (n = 292) | 6 | 2.1 | 1.0–4.4 | 2 | 0.7 | 0.2–2.5 | 0 | 0.0 | 0.0–1.3 | |||
50–59 (n = 291) | 4 | 1.4 | 0.5–3.5 | 5 | 1.7 | 0.7–4.0 | 1 | 0.3 | 0.1–1.9 | |||
60–69 (n = 513) | 12 | 2.3 | 1.3–4.0 | 13 | 2.5 | 1.5–4.3 | 4 | 0.8 | 0.3–2.0 | |||
70–79 (n = 465) | 13 | 2.8 | 0.3–2.2 | 43 | 9.2 | 6.9–12.2 | 12 | 2.6 | 1.5–4.5 | |||
80+ (n = 84) | 2 | 2.4 | 0.7–8.3 | 20 | 23.8 | 16.0–33.9 | 4 | 4.8 | 1.9–11.6 | |||
Educational level | ||||||||||||
Primary (n = 108) | 3 | 2.8 | 1.0–7.9 | 0.2 | 11 | 10.2 | 5.8–17.3 | 0.007 | 4 | 3.7 | 1.5–9.1 | 0.02 |
Vocational (n = 370) | 12 | 3.2 | 1.9–5.6 | 23 | 6.2 | 4.2–9.2 | 7 | 1.9 | 0.9–3.9 | |||
Secondary (n = 715) | 15 | 2.1 | 1.3–3.4 | 27 | 3.8 | 2.6–5.4 | 4 | 0.6 | 0.2–1.4 | |||
Higher (n = 619) | 8 | 1.3 | 0.7–2.5 | 23 | 3.7 | 2.5–5.5 | 6 | 1.0 | 0.4–2.1 | |||
Taking medications on a regular basis | ||||||||||||
Yes (n = 1137) | 25 | 2.2 | 1.5–3.2 | 0.7 | 67 | 5.9 | 4.7–7.4 | <0.001 | 21 | 1.8 | 1.2–2.8 | <0.001 |
No (n = 675) | 13 | 1.9 | 1.1–3.3 | 17 | 2.5 | 1.6–4.0 | 0 | 0.0 | 0.0–0.6 | |||
Do you smoke cigarettes, use e-cigarettes, or heated tobacco? | ||||||||||||
Yes (n = 306) | 8 | 2.6 | 1.3–5.1 | 0.5 | 12 | 3.9 | 2.3–6.7 | 0.5 | 4 | 1.3 | 0.5–3.3 | 0.8 |
No (n = 1506) | 30 | 2.0 | 1.4–2.8 | 72 | 4.8 | 3.8–6.0 | 17 | 1.1 | 0.7–1.8 | |||
Research site | ||||||||||||
No 1. (Bodzanów) (n = 159) | 6 | 3.8 | 1.7–8.0 | <0.001 | 8 | 5.0 | 2.6–9.6 | <0.001 | 1 | 0.6 | 0.1–3.5 | 0.7 |
No 2. (Ciechanów) (n = 289) | 2 | 0.7 | 0.2–2.5 | 11 | 3.8 | 2.1–6.7 | 3 | 1.0 | 0.4–3.0 | |||
No 3. (Warsaw–Wilanów District) (n = 107) | 3 | 2.8 | 1.0–7.9 | 18 | 16.8 | 10.9–25.0 | 1 | 0.9 | 0.2–5.1 | |||
No 4. (Legionowo) (n = 108) | 0 | 0.0 | 0.0–3.4 | 0 | 0.0 | 0.0–3.4 | 0 | 0.0 | 0.0–3.4 | |||
No 5. (Ostrołęka) (n = 148) | 0 | 0.0 | 0.0–2.5 | 5 | 3.4 | 1.5–7.7 | 4 | 2.7 | 1.1–6.7 | |||
No 6. (Płock) (n = 319) | 4 | 1.3 | 0.5–3.2 | 15 | 4.7 | 2.9–7.6 | 4 | 1.3 | 0.5–3.2 | |||
No 7. (Radom) (n = 335) | 7 | 2.1 | 1.0–4.3 | 13 | 3.9 | 2.3–6.5 | 3 | 0.9 | 0.3–2.6 | |||
No 8. (Siedlce) (n = 170) | 0 | 0.0 | 0.0–2.2 | 3 | 1.8 | 0.6–5.1 | 2 | 1.2 | 0.3–4.2 | |||
No 9. (Żyrardów) (n = 177) | 16 | 9.0 | 5.6–14.2 | 11 | 6.2 | 3.5–10.8 | 3 | 1.7 | 0.6–4.9 |
Factors Associated with the Use of Eye Care Services—Multivariable Logistic Regression | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Have You Visited an Ophthalmologist in the Last 2 Years?—“Yes” | Do you Have Difficulty Accessing an Ophthalmologist in Your Region?—“Yes” | |||||
Variable | OR | 95%CI | p | OR | 95%CI | p |
Gender | ||||||
Female | 1.31 | 1.07–1.59 | 0.008 | 1.65 | 1.36–2.01 | <0.001 |
Male | Reference | Reference | ||||
Age | ||||||
<30 | Reference | Reference | ||||
30–39 | 0.37 | 0.20–0.71 | 0.003 | 2.33 | 1.17–4.65 | 0.02 |
40–49 | 0.43 | 0.25–0.74 | 0.002 | 3.15 | 1.73–5.71 | <0.001 |
50–59 | 0.43 | 0.25–0.73 | 0.002 | 3.73 | 2.05–6.77 | <0.001 |
60–69 | 0.60 | 0.36–0.99 | 0.04 | 5.51 | 3.08–9.86 | <0.001 |
70–79 | 0.80 | 0.48–1.33 | 0.4 | 4.71 | 2.62–8.47 | <0.001 |
80+ | 1.07 | 0.56–2.05 | 0.8 | 5.86 | 2.84–12.07 | <0.001 |
Educational level | ||||||
Primary | Reference | Reference | ||||
Vocational | 1.06 | 0.67–1.66 | 0.8 | 0.99 | 0.62–1.56 | 0.9 |
Secondary | 1.14 | 0.74–1.75 | 0.6 | 0.92 | 0.60–1.43 | 0.7 |
Higher | 1.93 | 1.25–3.00 | 0.003 | 0.85 | 0.55–1.33 | 0.5 |
Taking medications on a regular basis | ||||||
Yes | 1.29 | 1.04–1.61 | 0.02 | 1.23 | 0.99–1.53 | 0.06 |
No | Reference | Reference |
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2025 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Kamińska, A.; Adamska, O.; Kamiński, M.; Pierzak, A.; Lockley, A.; Rybicki, S.; Jankowski, M.; Sierpiński, R. Opportunistic Eye Disease Screening in Mazovia, Poland: Lessons from a Local Government Program: “Good Vision for Mazovians”. Healthcare 2025, 13, 2456. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare13192456
Kamińska A, Adamska O, Kamiński M, Pierzak A, Lockley A, Rybicki S, Jankowski M, Sierpiński R. Opportunistic Eye Disease Screening in Mazovia, Poland: Lessons from a Local Government Program: “Good Vision for Mazovians”. Healthcare. 2025; 13(19):2456. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare13192456
Chicago/Turabian StyleKamińska, Agnieszka, Olga Adamska, Maciej Kamiński, Anna Pierzak, Andrew Lockley, Szymon Rybicki, Mateusz Jankowski, and Radosław Sierpiński. 2025. "Opportunistic Eye Disease Screening in Mazovia, Poland: Lessons from a Local Government Program: “Good Vision for Mazovians”" Healthcare 13, no. 19: 2456. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare13192456
APA StyleKamińska, A., Adamska, O., Kamiński, M., Pierzak, A., Lockley, A., Rybicki, S., Jankowski, M., & Sierpiński, R. (2025). Opportunistic Eye Disease Screening in Mazovia, Poland: Lessons from a Local Government Program: “Good Vision for Mazovians”. Healthcare, 13(19), 2456. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare13192456