Fear of Death, Concept of a Good Death and Self-Compassion Among University Students in Portugal: A Cross-Sectional Study
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design
2.2. Sample and Recruitment
2.3. Data Collection
2.4. Instruments
2.5. Data Analysis
2.6. Ethical Considerations
3. Results
3.1. Sample Description
3.2. Good Death, Self-Compassion and Fear of Death Levels Among Students
3.3. Differences in Participants’ Level of Death Fear Based on Their Personal Characteristics
3.4. Variation in Study Variables According to the Students’ Field of Study
3.5. Correlation Analysis Between Study Variables
3.6. Influencing Factors of Fear of Death
4. Discussion
4.1. Study Limitations
4.2. Implications for Practice
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Variables | Categories | n (%) |
---|---|---|
Age (years) Mean ± SD [range] 25.02 ± 8.52 [18–62] | 20–30 years | 251 (81.0) |
31–40 years | 36 (12.0) | |
41 or older | 22 (7.0) | |
Gender | Female | 233 (75.2) |
Male | 70 (22.6) | |
Other | 7 (2.3) | |
Marital Status | Married/Common law | 46 (14.8) |
Divorced | 10 (3.2) | |
Single | 254 (81.9) | |
Loss of a significant other in the last year. | No | 200 (645) |
Yes | 110 (35.5) | |
Field of study | Health | 149 (48.1) |
Non-Health | 161 (51.9) | |
Year Level | 1st year of the bachelor’s degree | 59 (19.0) |
2nd year of the bachelor’s degree | 53 (17.1) | |
3rd year of the bachelor’s degree | 54 (17.4) | |
4th year of the bachelor’s degree | 25 (8.1) | |
Postgraduate studies | 8 (2.6) | |
Master’s degree | 87 (28.1) | |
Doctoral studies | 2 (0.6) | |
Mean ± SD | ||
Health Perception | Physical | 3.53 ± 0.81 |
Mental | 3.12 ± 0.97 | |
Global | 3.51 ± 0.78 |
Variables | Mean | Median | SD | Min. | Max. | Percentiles | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
25 | 50 | 75 | ||||||
Closure | 9.67 | 10.00 | 1.97 | 3 | 12 | 9.00 | 10.00 | 11.00 |
Control | 17.34 | 18.00 | 2.76 | 5 | 20 | 16.00 | 18.00 | 20.00 |
Hope | 8.75 | 9.00 | 2.33 | 3 | 12 | 7.00 | 9.00 | 11.00 |
Good Death (global) | 35.76 | 36.00 | 5.27 | 14 | 44 | 33.00 | 36.00 | 40.00 |
Self-kindness | 14.30 | 14.00 | 4.32 | 5 | 25 | 11.00 | 14.00 | 17.00 |
Self-judgment | 13.66 | 14.00 | 4.42 | 5 | 25 | 10.75 | 14.00 | 17.00 |
Common Humanity | 12.50 | 12.00 | 3.46 | 4 | 20 | 10.00 | 12.00 | 15.00 |
Isolation | 11.75 | 12.00 | 3.78 | 4 | 20 | 9.00 | 12.00 | 14.00 |
Mindfulness | 12.17 | 12.00 | 3.34 | 4 | 20 | 10.00 | 12.00 | 14.25 |
Overidentification | 10.83 | 11.00 | 3.45 | 4 | 20 | 8.00 | 11.00 | 13.00 |
Self-Compassion (global) | 75.22 | 75.50 | 17.88 | 34 | 121 | 63.00 | 75.50 | 86.25 |
Own Death | 21.38 | 22.00 | 7.04 | 7 | 35 | 16.00 | 22.00 | 27.00 |
Own Dying | 25.90 | 27.00 | 6.41 | 7 | 35 | 22.00 | 27.00 | 31.00 |
Death of Others | 26.94 | 28.00 | 6.25 | 7 | 35 | 24.00 | 28.00 | 32.00 |
Dying of Others | 25.01 | 26.00 | 6.32 | 7 | 35 | 21.00 | 26.00 | 30.00 |
Fear of Death (global) | 99.22 | 102.00 | 21.97 | 28 | 140 | 85.00 | 102.00 | 115.25 |
Fear of Death | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
N | Mean | SD | Statistics | p-Value | Differences | 95% CI | Cohen’s d | Post Hoc | ||
Gender | Female | 233 | 103.45 | 19.58 | t(97.27) = 5.403 | <0.001 | 17.194 | [10.88, 23.51] | 0.778 | - |
Male | 70 | 86.26 | 24.37 | |||||||
Age group | 20–30 | 251 | 101.22 | 21.11 | F(2,306) = 5.229 | 0.006 | - | - | - | 20–30 > 31–40 > 41 |
31–40 | 36 | 91.94 | 23.20 | |||||||
41 or older | 22 | 89.68 | 25.14 | |||||||
Marital Status | Single | 254 | 100.51 | 21.91 | F(2,307) = 2.484 | 0.085 | - | - | - | - |
Married/Common law | 46 | 93.76 | 20.92 | |||||||
Divorced | 10 | 91.60 | 25.17 | |||||||
Significant loss | Yes | 110 | 100.06 | 20.70 | t(308) = −0.499 | 0.618 | - | - | - | - |
No | 200 | 98.76 | 22.68 | |||||||
Field of study | Health | 149 | 102.69 | 19.25 | t(302.57) = −2.718 | 0.007 | −6.666 | [−11.49, −1.84] | −0.308 | - |
Non-Health | 161 | 96.02 | 23.83 | |||||||
Year level | 1st year | 59 | 103.59 | 21.08 | F(7,302) = 1.425 | 0.195 | - | - | - | - |
2nd year | 53 | 101.36 | 21.91 | |||||||
3rd year | 54 | 98.94 | 24.07 | |||||||
4th year | 25 | 104.84 | 16.67 | |||||||
Postgraduate studies | 8 | 101.88 | 17.93 | |||||||
Master | 87 | 94.26 | 22.19 | |||||||
Doctoral studies | 2 | 102.50 | 34.65 |
Variables | Non-Health | Health | t | p-Value | 95% CI | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
M | SD | M | SD | ||||
Closure | 9.29 | 2.12 | 10.08 | 1.7 | −3.66 | <0.001 | [−1.22; −0.37] |
Control | 17.04 | 3.01 | 17.66 | 2.44 | −2.01 | 0.046 | [−1.24; −0.01] |
Hope | 7.98 | 2.32 | 9.58 | 2.05 | −6.43 | <0.001 | [−2.09; −1.11] |
Good death (global) | 34.3 | 5.48 | 37.33 | 4.55 | −5.62 | <0.001 | [−4.15; −1.89] |
Self-kindness | 14.25 | 4.37 | 14.36 | 4.27 | −0.22 | 0.827 | [−1.08; 0.86] |
Self-judgment | 13.33 | 4.47 | 14.01 | 4.35 | −1.36 | 0.174 | [−1.67; 0.30] |
Common Humanity | 12.63 | 3.72 | 12.37 | 3.15 | 0.66 | 0.512 | [−0.51; 1.03] |
Isolation | 11.43 | 3.91 | 12.1 | 3.62 | −1.55 | 0.121 | [−1.51; 0.18] |
Mindfulness | 12.32 | 3.46 | 12.01 | 3.2 | 0.8 | 0.424 | [−0.44; 1.05] |
Overidentification | 10.68 | 3.56 | 10.99 | 3.33 | −0.77 | 0.440 | [−1.08; 0.47] |
Self-compassion (global) | 74.64 | 18.57 | 75.84 | 17.16 | −0.59 | 0.556 | [−5.20; 2.81] |
Own Death | 19.98 | 7.02 | 22.9 | 6.76 | −3.73 | <0.001 | [−4.47; −1.38] |
Own Dying | 24.72 | 7.03 | 27.17 | 5.4 | −3.45 | 0.001 | [−3.84; −1.05] |
Death of Others | 26.18 | 6.79 | 27.76 | 5.51 | −2.26 | 0.025 | [−2.96; −0.20] |
Dying of Others | 25.14 | 6.84 | 24.86 | 5.72 | 0.4 | 0.692 | [−1.12; 1.69] |
Fear of Death (global) | 96.02 | 23.83 | 102.68 | 19.25 | −2.72 | 0.007 | [−11.49; −1.84] |
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | |||||||||||||||
| 0.399 ** | 1 | ||||||||||||||
| 0.386 ** | 0.231 ** | 1 | |||||||||||||
| 0.753 ** | 0.775 ** | 0.707 ** | 1 | ||||||||||||
| −0.021 | 0.019 | 0.148 ** | 0.068 | 1 | |||||||||||
| −0.094 | −0.071 | 0.024 | −0.062 | 0.571 ** | 1 | ||||||||||
| 0.052 | 0.035 | 0.143 * | 0.101 | 0.691 ** | 0.382 ** | 1 | |||||||||
| −0.136 * | −0.057 | −0.007 | −0.084 | 0.465 ** | 0.652 ** | 0.308 ** | 1 | ||||||||
| −0.079 | −0.076 | 0.03 | −0.056 | 0.690 ** | 0.465 ** | 0.635 ** | 0.458 ** | 1 | |||||||
| −0.120 * | −0.094 | −0.058 | −0.119 * | 0.465 ** | 0.694 ** | 0.357 ** | 0.687 ** | 0.524 ** | 1 | ||||||
| −0.085 | −0.051 | 0.062 | −0.031 | 0.833 ** | 0.817 ** | 0.707 ** | 0.762 ** | 0.789 ** | 0.789 ** | 1 | |||||
| 0.417 ** | 0.259 ** | 0.244 ** | 0.399 ** | −0.114 * | −0.175 ** | −0.065 | −0.199 ** | −0.248 ** | −0.264 ** | −0.222 ** | 1 | ||||
| 0.386 ** | 0.312 ** | 0.318 ** | 0.448 ** | −0.091 | −0.242 ** | −0.042 | −0.242 ** | −0.208 ** | −0.325 ** | −0.242 ** | 0.719 ** | 1 | |||
| 0.335 ** | 0.244 ** | 0.237 ** | 0.358 ** | −0.149 ** | −0.267** | −0.069 | −0.283 ** | −0.243 ** | −0.349 ** | −0.288 ** | 0.570 ** | 0.615 ** | 1 | ||
| 0.295 ** | 0.288 ** | 0.118 * | 0.313 ** | −0.189 ** | −0.320 ** | −0.132 * | −0.317 ** | −0.295 ** | −0.380 ** | −0.345 ** | 0.534 ** | 0.570 ** | 0.701 ** | 1 | |
| 0.426 ** | 0.326 ** | 0.272 ** | 0.451 ** | −0.160 ** | −0.294 ** | −0.091 * | −0.306 ** | −0.294 ** | −0.388 ** | −0.323 ** | 0.846 ** | 0.860 ** | 0.848 ** | 0.824 ** | 1 |
Explanatory Variables | B | SE | β | t | p |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Constant | 73.747 | 11.286 | - | 6.534 | < 0.001 |
Age (years) | −0.363 | 0.179 | 0.120 | −2.025 | 0.044 |
Gender (Ref. Female) | |||||
Male | −7.577 | 2.774 | 3.521 | −2.732 | 0.007 |
Marital status (Ref. Married/Common law) | |||||
Divorced | 1.895 | 6.593 | 3.621 | 0.287 | 0.774 |
Single | 1.478 | 3.777 | 2.100 | 0.391 | 0.696 |
Field of study (Ref. Non-Health) | |||||
Health | 2.432 | 2.324 | 1.987 | 1.046 | 0.296 |
Physical Health status | −1.808 | 1.636 | −1.236 | −1.105 | 0.270 |
Mental Health status | −1.019 | 1.669 | 1.020 | −0.610 | 0.542 |
Global health status | 3.490 | 2.192 | 2.632 | 1.592 | 0.112 |
Closure | 2.652 | 0.635 | 1.470 | 4.174 | <0.001 |
Control | 1.080 | 0.410 | 0.998 | 2.634 | 0.009 |
Hope | 0.848 | 0.524 | 0.699 | 1.620 | 0.106 |
Self-kindness | 0.447 | 0.402 | 0.560 | 1.112 | 0.267 |
Self-judgment | −0.113 | 0.370 | 0.266 | −0.307 | 0.759 |
Common Humanity | 0.430 | 0.443 | 0.337 | 0.971 | 0.332 |
Isolation | −0.445 | 0.411 | −0.321 | −1.084 | 0.279 |
Mindfulness | −0.916 | 0.488 | −0.841 | −1.878 | 0.061 |
Overidentification | 1.330 | 0.487 | 1.379 | 2.732 | 0.007 |
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Pereira, M.; Ali, A.M.; Fekih-Romdhane, F.; Yıldırım, M.; Laranjeira, C. Fear of Death, Concept of a Good Death and Self-Compassion Among University Students in Portugal: A Cross-Sectional Study. Healthcare 2025, 13, 2382. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare13182382
Pereira M, Ali AM, Fekih-Romdhane F, Yıldırım M, Laranjeira C. Fear of Death, Concept of a Good Death and Self-Compassion Among University Students in Portugal: A Cross-Sectional Study. Healthcare. 2025; 13(18):2382. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare13182382
Chicago/Turabian StylePereira, Marisa, Amira Mohammed Ali, Feten Fekih-Romdhane, Murat Yıldırım, and Carlos Laranjeira. 2025. "Fear of Death, Concept of a Good Death and Self-Compassion Among University Students in Portugal: A Cross-Sectional Study" Healthcare 13, no. 18: 2382. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare13182382
APA StylePereira, M., Ali, A. M., Fekih-Romdhane, F., Yıldırım, M., & Laranjeira, C. (2025). Fear of Death, Concept of a Good Death and Self-Compassion Among University Students in Portugal: A Cross-Sectional Study. Healthcare, 13(18), 2382. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare13182382