Evaluation of the Level of Psychological Distress in Construction Workers during the COVID-19 Pandemic in Southern Spain
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Design
2.2. Population and Sample
2.3. Instruments
2.4. Data Analysis
2.5. Ethics Statement
3. Results
3.1. Sociodemographic Characteristics of the Sample
3.2. Psychological Distress and Personal or Employment-Related Variables
3.3. Psychological Distress and Data Related to the COVID-19 Pandemic
3.4. Variables Determining the Development of Psychological Distress among Workers in the Construction Sector
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Cases (%) | |
---|---|
Sex | |
Male | 703 (81.7%) |
Female | 154 (17.9%) |
Intersex | 3 (0.3%) |
Age [mean (SD)] | 42.7 (10.4) |
Marital status | |
Married or cohabiting | 526 (61.2%) |
Other situations | 334 (38.8%) |
Approximately, how many square metres (m2) does your dwelling have? | |
0–50 m2 | 28 (3.3%) |
51–75 m2 | 154 (17.9%) |
76–100 m2 | 312 (36.3%) |
101–125 m2 | 170 (19.8%) |
126–150 m2 | 105 (12.2%) |
More than 150 m2 | 91 (10.6%) |
Do you consider that your income is sufficient to make ends meet? | |
Yes | 374 (43.5%) |
No or depending on the month | 486 (56.5%) |
What is the total monthly family income? | |
Between EUR 0 and 1200 | 211 (24.5%) |
More than EUR 1200 | 649 (75.5%) |
Employment situation | |
Self-employed | 104 (12.1%) |
Full-time employee | 676 (78.6%) |
Part-time employee | 51 (5.9%) |
Temporary redundancy procedure | 5 (0.6%) |
Unemployed | 24 (2.8%) |
Degree of responsibility | |
Managers and skilled workers | 209 (24.3%) |
Intermediate management | 135 (15.7%) |
Manual workers | 410 (47.7%) |
Others (administration staff, cleaning…) | 106 (12.3%) |
Type of construction work | |
Building work | 491 (57.1%) |
Civil work | 159 (18.5%) |
Industrial work | 123 (14.3%) |
More than one type of work | 86 (10.0%) |
Does not know/say | 1 (0.1%) |
Construction site | |
Outdoors | 360 (41.9%) |
Indoors (of buildings, facilities…) | 500 (58.1%) |
Use of staff canteen | |
Yes | 208 (24.2%) |
No | 612 (71.2%) |
Other cases | 40 (4.6%) |
NO GHQ < 3 | YES GHQ ≥ 3 | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cases | % | Cases | % | Statistical (Effect Size) | p-Value | |
Total | 609 | 70.8% | 251 | 29.2% | ||
Age [Median (IQR)] | 43.4 (15) | 41.2 (16) | 66,022.5 (0.099) ** | 0.006 | ||
Overall health and physical condition [Median (IQR)] * | 8 (2) | 8 (1) | 61,608.50 (0.156) ** | <0.001 | ||
Sex | ||||||
Male | 511 | 72.7% | 192 | 27.3% | 6.551 (0.087) *** | 0.010 |
Female | 96 | 62.3% | 58 | 37.7% | ||
Intersexual | 2 | 66.7% | 1 | 33.3% | - | - |
Marital status | ||||||
Married or cohabiting | 390 | 74.1% | 136 | 25.9% | 7.269 (0.092) *** | 0.007 |
Other situations | 219 | 65.6% | 115 | 34.4% | ||
Approximately, how many square metres (m2) does your dwelling have? | ||||||
0–75 m2 | 122 | 67.0% | 60 | 33.0% | 1.597 (0.043) *** | 0.206 |
More than 75 m2 | 487 | 71.8% | 191 | 28.2% | ||
Employment status | ||||||
Full-time employee/self-employed | 558 | 71.5% | 222 | 28.5% | 4.010 (0.069) *** | 0.045 |
Part-time employee/temporary redundancy procedure | 33 | 58.9% | 23 | 41.1% | ||
Unemployed | 18 | 75.0% | 6 | 25.0% | - | - |
Do you consider your income sufficient to make ends meet? | ||||||
Yes | 283 | 75.7% | 91 | 24.3% | 7.546 (0.094) *** | 0.006 |
No or depending on the month | 326 | 67.1% | 160 | 32.9% | ||
What is the total monthly family income? | ||||||
Between EUR 0 and 1200 | 137 | 64.9% | 74 | 35.1% | 4.685 (0.074) *** | 0.030 |
More than EUR 1200 | 472 | 72.7% | 177 | 27.3% | ||
Degree of responsibility | ||||||
Managers and qualified staff | 139 | 66.5% | 70 | 33.5% | 4.802 (0.075) *** | 0.187 |
Mid-level management | 99 | 73.3% | 36 | 26.7% | ||
Labourer | 301 | 73.4% | 109 | 26.6% | ||
Other (administrative staff, cleaning staff, …) | 70 | 66.0% | 36 | 34.0% | ||
Type of construction work | ||||||
Building work | 348 | 70.9% | 143 | 29.1% | 6.950 (0.090) *** | 0.073 |
Civil work | 124 | 78.0% | 35 | 22.0% | ||
Industrial work | 82 | 66.7% | 41 | 33.3% | ||
More than one type of work | 55 | 64.0% | 31 | 36% | ||
DK/DR | 0 | 0% | 1 | 100% | ||
Construction site | ||||||
Outdoors (open air) | 254 | 70.6% | 106 | 29.4% | 0.020 (0.005) *** | 0.888 |
Indoors (buildings, facilities, etc.) | 355 | 71.0% | 145 | 29.0% | ||
Use of staff canteen | ||||||
Yes | 153 | 73.6% | 55 | 26.4% | 1.075 (0.036) *** | 0.300 |
No | 427 | 69.8% | 185 | 30.2% | ||
Other cases | 29 | 72.5% | 11 | 27.5% | - | - |
NO GHQ < 3 | YES GHQ ≥ 3 | Chi-Squared Test | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cases | % | Cases | % | Statistical | p-Value | |
Total | 609 | 70.8% | 251 | 29.2% | ||
Have you been diagnosed with COVID-19? | ||||||
Yes | 247 | 68.4% | 114 | 31.6% | 1.724 (0.045) | 0.189 |
No | 362 | 72.5% | 137 | 27.5% | ||
Has anyone in your circle been diagnosed with COVID-19? | ||||||
Yes | 535 | 71.2% | 216 | 28.8% | 0.516 (0.025) | 0.472 |
No | 74 | 67.9% | 35 | 32.1% | ||
Has anyone in your circle died from COVID-19? | ||||||
Yes | 74 | 69.2% | 33 | 30.8% | 0.162 (0.014) | 0.687 |
No | 535 | 71.0% | 218 | 29.0% | ||
Have you been isolated because you have had the disease or contact with a person tested positive? | ||||||
Yes | 334 | 68.7% | 152 | 31.3% | 2.361 (0.052) | 0.124 |
No | 275 | 73.5% | 99 | 26.5% | ||
Have you had mild symptoms? | ||||||
Yes | 231 | 67.0% | 114 | 33.0% | 4.148 (0.069) | 0.042 |
No | 378 | 73.4% | 137 | 26.6% | ||
Have your working conditions been affected by the pandemic? | ||||||
Yes | 273 | 60.3% | 180 | 39.7% | 51.539 (0.245) | <0.001 |
No | 336 | 82.6% | 71 | 17.4% | ||
Have your managers or your company provided and do they provide you with the necessary protective measures to avoid contagion (masks, gloves, gels, goggles)? | ||||||
Yes | 457 | 73.2% | 167 | 26.8% | 7.932 (0.097) | 0.005 |
No | 143 | 63.3% | 83 | 36.7% | ||
Other | 9 | 90% | 1 | 10% | - | - |
Did you receive or have you ever received specific training on COVID-19 disease (transmission routes, self-protection measures, warning signs) organised by your managers or your company? | ||||||
Yes | 343 | 74.2% | 119 | 25.8% | 5.417 (0.080) | 0.020 |
No | 255 | 66.9% | 126 | 33.1% | ||
Other (self-employed, mid-level, …) | 11 | 64.7% | 6 | 35.3% | - | - |
In general, do you feel safe and protected from infection in the performance of your work duties? | ||||||
Yes, totally safe | 360 | 78.3% | 100 | 21.7% | 39.653 (0.215) | <0.001 |
Somewhat safe | 235 | 64.9% | 127 | 35.1% | ||
No, not at all safe | 14 | 36.8% | 24 | 63.2% | ||
Have you been vaccinated against COVID-19? | ||||||
Yes | 600 | 71.0% | 245 | 29.0% | 0.864 (0.032) | 0.353 |
No | 9 | 60.0% | 6 | 40.0% | ||
Have you had any side effects following vaccination? | ||||||
Yes | 244 | 65.6% | 128 | 34.4% | 8.652 (0.10) | 0.003 |
No | 365 | 74.8% | 123 | 25.2% | ||
Do you think that the situation experienced during the COVID-19 pandemic has negatively affected your mental/emotional well-being? | ||||||
Yes | 272 | 55.85% | 215 | 44.15% | 121.616 (0.376) | <0.001 |
No | 337 | 90.35% | 36 | 9.65% |
Odds Ratio (Confidence Interval at the 95% Level) | |
---|---|
Effect of the pandemic on mental/emotional well-being (Ref. NO) | 6.182 ** (4.204, 9.089) |
Working conditions affected by the pandemic (Ref. NO) | 2.281 ** (1.628, 3.196) |
Health and physical condition | 0.797 * (0.744, 0.854) |
Age | 0.980 ** (0.969, 0.992) |
Sensitivity (%)/specificity (%) | 44.2/87.9 |
Correctly classified percentage | 75.1% |
R2 | 0.428 |
Hosmer–Lemeshow test | χ2 = 5.138 (p = 0.743) |
Omnibus test | χ2 = 329.678 (p < 0.001) |
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Gómez-Salgado, C.; Camacho-Vega, J.C.; Allande-Cussó, R.; Ruiz-Frutos, C.; Ortega-Moreno, M.; Martín-Pereira, J.; Macías-Toronjo, I.; Prieto-Callejero, B.; García-Iglesias, J.J.; Fagundo-Rivera, J.; et al. Evaluation of the Level of Psychological Distress in Construction Workers during the COVID-19 Pandemic in Southern Spain. Healthcare 2024, 12, 1224. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare12121224
Gómez-Salgado C, Camacho-Vega JC, Allande-Cussó R, Ruiz-Frutos C, Ortega-Moreno M, Martín-Pereira J, Macías-Toronjo I, Prieto-Callejero B, García-Iglesias JJ, Fagundo-Rivera J, et al. Evaluation of the Level of Psychological Distress in Construction Workers during the COVID-19 Pandemic in Southern Spain. Healthcare. 2024; 12(12):1224. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare12121224
Chicago/Turabian StyleGómez-Salgado, Carlos, Juan Carlos Camacho-Vega, Regina Allande-Cussó, Carlos Ruiz-Frutos, Mónica Ortega-Moreno, Jorge Martín-Pereira, Israel Macías-Toronjo, Blanca Prieto-Callejero, Juan Jesús García-Iglesias, Javier Fagundo-Rivera, and et al. 2024. "Evaluation of the Level of Psychological Distress in Construction Workers during the COVID-19 Pandemic in Southern Spain" Healthcare 12, no. 12: 1224. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare12121224
APA StyleGómez-Salgado, C., Camacho-Vega, J. C., Allande-Cussó, R., Ruiz-Frutos, C., Ortega-Moreno, M., Martín-Pereira, J., Macías-Toronjo, I., Prieto-Callejero, B., García-Iglesias, J. J., Fagundo-Rivera, J., & Gómez-Salgado, J. (2024). Evaluation of the Level of Psychological Distress in Construction Workers during the COVID-19 Pandemic in Southern Spain. Healthcare, 12(12), 1224. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare12121224