Unlocking Teacherpreneur Potential in Higher Education: Validating a Competency Measurement Scale

Abstract

This study investigated the level of teacherpreneur competency among pre-service teachers (n = 400), with an additional 400 pilot participants from the same academic context invited for exploratory factor analysis and reliability analysis. A self-reported questionnaire, adapted from the Teacherpreneur Competency Model (TCM), was used to assess participants’ competency across four key domains: pedagogical, social, personality, and professional. The findings revealed that pre- service teachers possessed high levels of teacherpreneur competency, with Personality Competency scoring the highest and Social Competency scoring the lowest. These results suggest that while pre-service teachers have a solid foundation in delivering instruction, targeted interventions are needed within teacher education programs to nurture their entrepreneurial spirit and foster the social and personal attributes associated with teacherpreneurship. This study underscores the importance of integrating comprehensive competency development into teacher education curricula to better prepare future educators for the dynamic demands of the teaching profession.

1. Introduction

The contemporary era of global development is characterized by rapid changes in politics, economics, and society, driven by advancements in science and technology, increasing globalization, and intensified competition in the global market. In this context, adapting the educational system to effectively address these transformative shifts has become essential [1,2]. The challenges of the twenty-first century require higher education institutions to equip pre-service teachers with an innovative mindset and a diverse skill set, enabling them to contribute meaningfully to sustainable development. This empowerment enables them to make meaningful contributions to sustainable development [3], thereby highlighting the imperative for cultivating teacherpreneurs as a strategy to confront the forthcoming challenges [4].

A teacherpreneur is an educator who goes beyond the traditional role of a skilled instructor by adopting an entrepreneurial mindset [5]. These educators are not only adept at teaching but are also proactive in seeking innovative and creative solutions within the educational landscape [6]. Driven by a desire to transform teaching and learning, teacherpreneurs integrate entrepreneurial principles into their practices, both inside and outside the classroom, fostering educational innovation and improvement [7].

This study investigates the level of teacherpreneur competency among pre-service teachers from four selected Normal Universities, which are institutions specializing in teacher education. These pre-service teachers represent a critical population for nurturing a future generation of educational innovators. Equipping them with teacherpreneur skills offers a strategic advantage [8]. Understanding the factors that nurture this teacherpreneur spirit becomes crucial in fostering a vibrant educational ecosystem. Traditionally, teacher training has focused primarily on pedagogical skills. However, a competent teacherpreneur exhibits not only strong pedagogical abilities but also Social, Personal, and Professional Competencies, including effective communication, collaboration, innovation, and a commitment to continuous professional development [9].

To assess these diverse skills, we developed a comprehensive teacherpreneur competency measurement scale. The objectives of this study are twofold: first, to validate the components of the teacherpreneur competency measurement scale, and second, to determine the level of teacherpreneur competency among pre-service teachers across the selected universities. Through this research, we aim to provide insights that can inform educational practices and policies aimed at cultivating teacherpreneurs, thereby enhancing the resilience and adaptability of our educational systems in response to the ongoing global changes.

2. Literature Review

2.1. Concept of Teacherpreneur and the Synthetized Teacherpreneur Competency Model

Turning to research in 2013, the term teacherpreneurs has been emerging in academic writing: teachers who develop and ‘sell’ their educational expertise while coming up with creative solutions to issues affecting the education sector are described as teacherpreneurs [4]. As a teacherpreneur is the combination of both teacher and entrepreneur, both teachers’ and entrepreneurs’ competencies are the main concern in this study. The purpose of teacherpreneurs is to enable qualified teachers to promote the profession by informing colleagues, decision-makers, and the broader public about what is best for students’ learning outcomes [10]. The purpose is not to locate ‘super teachers’ who can make significantly more money [6]; ultimately, teacherpreneurship is less about establishing a new income stream for individuals than it is about promoting and spreading a new culture of collective innovation and creativity in the educational domain that has sorely lacked one [6,11]. To foster this culture, it is essential to tap into a group of underutilized professionals: teachers. This study, therefore, advocates for enhancing the teacherpreneurial competencies of pre-service teachers, specifically students enrolled in teacher education programs at Normal Universities.

Teacherpreneurship is an amalgamation of the terms school teacher and entrepreneur [4]. Regarding the definition of the idea of teacherpreneurship, there is still a great deal of doubt and debate among scholars. Professor Barnett Berry is among the most-cited researchers on this issue. He defines teacherpreneurs as instructors who mix teaching in a classroom with sharing their professional experience and pedagogical and policy ideas for the benefit of their colleagues and students [6]. According to Muhammad et al., teacherpreneurship is not required to incorporate economic aspects such as the purchase and sale of educational materials [12]. They propose that teacherpreneurs be seen as instructors who are very enthusiastic about their vocation and dedicated to promoting it. However, both definitions exclude the contribution of the notion of ‘entrepreneurship’, which distinguishes this word from the well-known concept of teacher leadership.

Furthermore, such an interpretation of teacherpreneurship limits it to classroom instructors, limiting other conceivable roles of teacherpreneurs in education. Being a teacherpreneur requires first and foremost the existence of an entrepreneurial spirit and does not automatically transform teachers into businesspeople [13]. However, this statement is quite vague and does not clarify what is entrepreneurial spirit. On the other hand, Keyhani and Kim recommend seeing teacherpreneurs as social entrepreneurs whose major objective is to solve societal issues and needs via creative techniques [14].

As evidenced by research, the majority of debates surrounding the definition of teacherpreneurship focus on its entrepreneurial aspect [15]. This is due to the fact that, in many countries, the education field, particularly secondary education and teachers, has historically been separated from business approaches. In developing the teacherpreneurship notion, a majority of scholars take the entrepreneurial aspect into account. Teacherpreneurs are current or past educators who create and sell their unique educational products while following the same aims as indicated in Barnett Berry’s description [6,16]. Teacherpreneurs market and sell their professional abilities and knowledge via innovative solutions to education’s current difficulties. Thus, online private tutoring is also a sort of teacherpreneurship [17,18]. These definitions are likely more inclusive since they indicate that teacherpreneurs are a varied group of educators that includes classroom teachers, tutors, and other specialists in the subject of education. Moreover, these perspectives acknowledge that the commercial side is also the phenomenon’s defining feature [15].

Teacherpreneur models are often categorized into three unique sorts, including classroom, consultant, and business teacherpreneurial models, in order to better comprehend the many forms of teacherpreneurship [7]. The classroom teacherpreneur model describes modern school teachers who, in addition to their teaching duties, collaborate closely with other instructors [6]. Administrators of the school might request that these instructors give seminars and professional development courses in order to become mentors or supervisors for their less experienced colleagues [6]. In such situations, profiting from additional income is not the primary objective of a teacherpreneur; however, they may receive additional privileges from the school, such as reduced classroom hours, financial grants, increased salary, and more free time for their additional responsibilities, research, and collaboration with other schools and outside companies [6].

However, the consultant teacherpreneur model provides the greatest possibility to enhance financial revenue [7]. It does not preclude the opportunity to combine classroom teaching, often as a part-time employee, with additional teacherpreneurial activities, such as private consultations for teachers, schools, and companies, the sale of online courses and original teaching resources, and the promotion of their personal brand through social media, conferences, and publications [16].

The third business teacherpreneur model was not completely covered by the preceding definitions since it is uncommon and focuses not on earning a profit or helping other teachers, but rather on teaching entrepreneurial lessons to students in school [7]. During these seminars, business teacherpreneurs instruct students on how to become company owners, manufacture goods, and conduct market research after graduation. For example, in Kazakhstan, the optional subject ‘Basics of Entrepreneurship and Business’ was added to the school curriculum in 2019, so that instructors who teach these courses conform to the business teacherpreneur model [7].

In summary, the term “teacherpreneur” encapsulates a transformative role within education, representing educators who leverage their professional skills and knowledge to innovate and lead [6]. At its core, a teacherpreneur is someone who not only excels in the classroom but also demonstrates entrepreneurial acumen in creating educational products and services [6]. This unique blend of pedagogic excellence and entrepreneurial spirit enables teacherpreneurs to drive forward the evolution of education, pioneering new approaches to teaching and learning [19]. In this research context, “teacherpreneur” refers to individuals who embody this fusion of qualities, possessing the vision and initiative to effect meaningful change in education [17]. They are educators who are not content with the status quo but instead seek to push the boundaries of what is possible in teaching and learning. Through their creativity, leadership, and entrepreneurial spirit, teacherpreneurs are reshaping the educational landscape and empowering learners to thrive in the twenty-first century [20].

Concerning the concept of teacherpreneur competencies, it includes four main categories: Pedagogical, Social, Personality, and Professional Competencies [9]. Pedagogical Competencies encompass skills such as instructional design, continuous assessment, student engagement, flexible classroom management, and innovative teaching strategies [4]. Social Competencies emphasize collaboration, building strong student relationships, networking, and communication skills [4]. Personality Competencies involve creativity, multitasking, patience, perseverance, and the ability to identify opportunities [4]. Professional Competencies include teacher leadership, entrepreneurial thinking, and a deep understanding of effective learning methodologies [4]. Active teaching, instructional design, and fostering a collaborative culture are critical aspects within Pedagogical Competencies [5]. Additionally, strategic planning and determination are vital Personality Competencies, while teacher leadership and self-knowledge are crucial within Professional Competencies [5].

In pre-service education, engaging learners, effective instructional design, classroom management, and rigorous evaluation are essential Pedagogical Competencies [8]. Networking, partnership building, and communication skills are important Social Competencies [8]. Creativity, strategic planning, perseverance, and opportunity identification are key Personality Competencies [8]. Entrepreneurial knowledge and teacher leadership are essential Professional Competencies for organizational development and continuous learning.

A comprehensive understanding of learners, active teaching, instructional design, and classroom management are critical Pedagogical Competencies [15]. Social Competencies include networking, collaboration, and communication skills [15]. Creativity, strategic planning, adaptability, and perseverance are essential Personality Competencies [15]. Professional Competencies include entrepreneurship knowledge and teacher leadership, crucial for guiding educational institutions toward improvement.

Innovative teaching methodologies, effective classroom management, collaboration, communication, perseverance, and opportunity identification are fundamental competencies [21,22]. Entrepreneurial principles are also vital in shaping teacherpreneurs [21,22]. These competencies collectively highlight the multifaceted nature of teacherpreneurship, demonstrating that Pedagogical, Social, Personality, and Professional Competencies are essential for modern educators. Teacherpreneurs equipped with these skills are well positioned to innovate and navigate the challenges and opportunities of contemporary educational environments [4,5,8,9,15,21,22]. In conclusion, based on the empirical studies reviewed, we have synthesized the Teacherpreneur Competency Model as illustrated in Figure 1.

2.2. Significance of Teacherpreneur Competency in China’s Higher Education

The significance of teacherpreneur competencies in China is both complex and critical, particularly as the nation continues to transition from a manufacturing-based economy to one driven by knowledge, innovation, and technology [23]. Teacherpreneurs—educators who combine teaching with entrepreneurial skills—are essential in fostering the creativity, innovation, and adaptability needed in today’s rapidly changing global landscape.

China’s national strategies, such as the “Made in China 2025” initiative, emphasize the need for an education system that not only delivers technical knowledge but also nurtures entrepreneurial and innovative mindsets to sustain economic competitiveness [24]. Teacherpreneurs are crucial in this context as they possess a blend of competencies that align with these national priorities, particularly those highlighted in the Teacherpreneur Competency Model, such as strategic planning and entrepreneurship [4]. These competencies enable educators to develop and implement educational practices that prepare students to thrive in an innovation-driven economy.

Traditional Chinese education has long emphasized rote learning and high-stakes testing, which can inhibit creativity and critical thinking among students [25]. Teacherpreneurs, equipped with strong Pedagogical Competencies such as instructional design and innovative teaching strategies, can transform classrooms into dynamic environments where innovation and creativity are encouraged [6]. For instance, the Teacherpreneur Competency Model underscores the importance of competencies like understanding of learners and flexible classroom management, which allow teacherpreneurs to design learning experiences that engage students actively and foster essential 21st-century skills [6].

In recent years, the concept of teacherpreneurship has emerged as a critical factor in enhancing the effectiveness and innovation of educators [11,12], particularly within vocational education [13]. Studies have highlighted that teacherpreneurs are not just educators but also innovators who apply entrepreneurial thinking to their teaching practice, thereby fostering creativity, leadership, and improved student outcomes [5,11,13]. For instance, research conducted on vocational high school teachers in Indonesia has demonstrated that teacherpreneurial characteristics, such as motivation and innovative attitudes, are essential for developing an entrepreneurial spirit in students, which is increasingly necessary in today’s competitive global environment [13]. This underscores the importance of integrating teacherpreneurship into professional development programs not only in Indonesia but also in other countries such as China to cultivate a new generation of educators capable of driving educational transformation [5].

China’s education system faces several systemic challenges, including a rigid curriculum and limited autonomy for educators [26]. Teacherpreneurs are well positioned to address these challenges by advocating for more flexible curricula and promoting pedagogical innovations that align with educational trends [5,11]. The Teacherpreneur Competency Model highlights the importance of competencies such as networking and partnership building, which are crucial for teacherpreneurs to collaborate with stakeholders and drive systemic change within the educational landscape [14].

Teacherpreneurship plays a vital role in enhancing the professionalism and motivation of teachers [6]. Engaging in entrepreneurial activities allows teachers to expand their professional networks, enhance their leadership skills, and gain recognition for their contributions to educational innovation [9]. The Teacherpreneur Competency Model identifies Professional Competencies such as teacher leadership and continuous learning, which are essential for fostering a culture of professionalism and lifelong learning among educators [6]. This not only increases job satisfaction but also elevates the status of the teaching profession in China, making it more attractive to high-quality educators. Furthermore, the mediation role of teacherpreneurship highlights its importance in the educational process, linking leadership qualities to the development of entrepreneurial attitudes in students [27].

Thus, the development of teacherpreneur competencies is essential for aligning China’s education system with its national goals of fostering innovation and economic growth [23]. Teacherpreneurs, equipped with a comprehensive set of Pedagogical, Social, Personality, and Professional Competencies as outlined in the synthesized Teacherpreneur Competency Model, play a crucial role in transforming classroom practices, addressing systemic challenges, enhancing teacher professionalism, and promoting social innovation and sustainability. As China continues to reform its education system, the cultivation of teacherpreneurship will be vital for creating an educational environment that prepares future educators for the demands of the modern economy and contributing to the country’s long-term development [5].

3. Methodology

3.1. Research Methodology, Population, and Sampling Technique, and the Demographic Profile of the Participants

This quantitative study was conducted over a period of six months, covering all stages from the initial conceptualization of the research idea to project approval, ethical clearance, data collection, and thorough analysis. The study employed a comprehensive and rigorous methodology, including a well-defined research design and systematic data collection. To ensure the robustness of the findings, exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) were used to assess the structure and validity of the measurement model. Additionally, Pearson correlation analysis was applied to examine the relationships between key components of the Teacherpreneur Competency Model. This meticulous approach, combining advanced statistical techniques, ensured the accuracy, reliability, and validity of the study’s results.

Population and Sampling Tachnique: As shown in

Table 1. Information on the population from the selected universities.

University	Number of Teacher Education Program	Numbers of Students *	Sample
UNI 1	37	3688	185
UNI 2	21	1418	71
UNI 3	19	1468	74
UNI 4	21	1400	70
Total	98	7974	400

* Students only include those who enrolled in teacher education programs.

, the study population consisted of 7974 students enrolled in these four Normal Universities (which are also known as teacher education institutions) at the provincial level in China, based on the latest update of admission information published by each university. To ensure a more accurate representation of the population, a Multistage Sampling Technique was employed. This method involved multiple phases of sampling, allowing for the selection of a sample that reflects the diverse characteristics of the broader population [28]. By progressively narrowing down from larger groups to smaller, more specific units, this approach enhanced the precision and representativeness of the final sample [28]. It was recommended to utilize a sample size of at least 381 individuals, assuming a Degree of Error Expected of 0.05 [29]. However, to uphold the validity and reliability of the collected data, a sample size of 400 individuals was deemed necessary to assess the level of teacherpreneur competency, as n = 400 is more than 5 times the number of observed items [30]. Firstly, as shown in Table 1, the total number of students across all universities (7974) was calculated to determine cluster sizes. Proportions of students from each university relative to the total population were then calculated (proportion: UNI 1 = 0.462, UNI 2 = 0.178, UNI 3 = 0.184, UNI 4 = 0.175). Sample sizes for each cluster were determined by multiplying the recommended sample size (400) by the proportion of students from each university (sample size: UNI 1 = 185; UNI 2 = 71; UNI 3 = 74; UNI 4 = 70). Subsequently, within each university, teacher education programs were identified, forming sub-clusters. Sample sizes for sub-clusters were calculated by dividing the sample size allocated to each university by the number of teacher education programs within that university. Finally, random selection of the specified number of samples from each teacher education program within each university was conducted to ensure the representativeness of the entire population (random selection in each TEP: UNI 1 = 5; UNI 2 = 3; UNI 3 = 4; UNI 4 = 3).

Demographic Profile of the Participants: The demographic distribution of the participants offers a detailed view of the diversity within the sample, focusing on educational institutions, teacher education programs, gender, and age. Participants were drawn from four Normal Universities within a single province, ensuring a broad representation across institutions. The sample spanned multiple academic disciplines, with 18.8% of participants enrolled in unspecified programs, 18.5% in Politics, 16.8% each in Language and Physics, 15.0% in Primary Education, and 14.2% in Mathematics. Gender distribution was relatively balanced, comprising 36.0% female participants, 30.5% male participants, and 33.5% who chose not to disclose their gender. The age distribution was similarly diverse, with 27.3% of participants aged 22, 25.5% aged 20, 24.8% aged 21, and 22.5% aged over 22. This varied and representative sample provides a strong basis for analyzing teacherpreneur competency levels and offers essential context for interpreting this study’s outcomes.

Response Rates: For the exploratory factor analysis (EFA), 400 questionnaires were initially distributed, and 393 were returned, yielding a response rate of 98.25%. After removing 17 incomplete or invalid responses, an additional 50 questionnaires were sent out, with 48 responses received (a 96% response rate). Of these, 43 were validated. To ensure the sample sizes for each teacher education program (TEP) aligned with the Multistage Sampling Technique (University 1 = 5; University 2 = 3; University 3 = 4; University 4 = 3); the excess responses were removed, resulting in a final dataset of 400 valid responses. For the confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), 450 questionnaires were distributed, and 445 were returned, yielding a response rate of 98.89%. After data cleaning, which removed 9 incomplete or inconsistent responses, the remaining excess responses were also removed to ensure that the sample sizes met the specific requirements for each TEP as determined by the Multistage Sampling Technique. This resulted in a final dataset of 400 valid responses, ensuring both the integrity of the analysis and the representativeness of the sample.

Ethical Considerations: In conducting this research, several ethical considerations were carefully addressed. All participants were fully informed about the purpose of the study and provided their informed consent before participating. The confidentiality of participant information was strictly maintained, ensuring that individual identities could not be traced back to any data collected or reported. Data handling procedures adhered to stringent ethical standards, including secure storage and anonymization techniques to protect participant privacy. Additionally, the study design ensured that no participants would be subjected to harm or undue stress as a result of their participation. The potential impact of the research findings on educational policy and practice was considered, aiming to contribute positively to the field without causing adverse effects on the institutions or individuals involved.

3.2. Instrumental Development

A questionnaire titled “Assessment of Teacherpreneur Competency” was developed for this study. To ensure content validity, five experts with specializations in Educational Administration, Entrepreneurial Education, Educational Research, Social Sciences, and Statistics were invited to evaluate the questionnaire using the Index of Item-Objective Congruence. Following the validation process, a director from the selected institution was interviewed to confirm that the validated questionnaire met their institutional ethics requirements for data collection. Subsequently, the questionnaire was submitted to our Institutional Review Board for ethical approval.

After receiving ethical approval, the survey was administered via the Wenjuanxing platform, ensuring efficient distribution and data collection. Participants were invited via email, with a clear explanation of the study’s purpose, voluntary participation, and confidentiality. A pilot group of 30 participants was selected to assess the reliability and internal consistency of the questionnaire. The results indicated a high level of reliability, confirmed by Cronbach’s alpha, with no further adjustments needed. The 30 pilot participants, selected using the same criteria as those for the full exploratory factor analysis (EFA), were retained and combined with 370 additional responses to perform the EFA. According to Thabane et al., including pilot data in the main analysis is appropriate when the methodology and sampling frames are consistent, enhancing the efficiency and reliability of the study [31].

The questionnaire, provided in Appendix A, focused on assessing students’ teacherpreneur competency, comprising four dimensions: Pedagogical Competencies, Social Competencies, Personality Competencies, and Professional Competencies. Respondents rated items on a five-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (lowest level) to 5 (highest level). The structure of the teacherpreneur competency measurement scale is shown in

Table 2. Structure of teacherpreneur competency measurement scale.

Subscale	Dimension	Item
Pedagogical Competency, A	Understanding of learners, AA	1, 2, 3, 4, 5
	Instructional competencies, AB	6, 7, 8, 9, 10
	Evaluation of learning, AC	11, 12, 13, 14, 15
Social Competency, B	Networks and partnership competencies, BA	16, 17, 18, 19, 20
	Collaborative competencies, BB	21, 22, 23, 24, 25
	Competencies to organize, BC	26, 27, 28, 29, 30
	Communication competencies, BD	31, 32, 33, 34, 35
Personality Competency, C	Competencies of being innovative and proactive, CA	36, 37, 38, 39, 40
	Competencies for strategic planning and analysis, CB	41, 42, 43, 44, 45
	Competencies of determination and dedication, CC	46, 47, 48, 49, 50
	Competencies for the identification of opportunities, CD	51, 52, 53, 54, 55
Professional Competency, D	Teacher leadership competencies, DA	56, 57, 58, 59, 60
	Entrepreneurial competencies, DB	61, 62, 63, 64, 65
	Learning competencies, DC	66, 67, 68, 69, 70

.

4. Results

4.1. Data Cleaning

Before conducting the exploratory factor analysis (EFA), a comprehensive data cleaning process was undertaken to ensure the accuracy and reliability of the dataset. This critical step involved identifying and correcting errors such as missing values, duplicates, and inconsistencies. Questionnaire responses with missing data were removed to prevent any potential bias in the analysis. Additionally, outliers were detected and managed appropriately to minimize their impact, ensuring the integrity of the subsequent statistical analysis.

4.2. Exploratory Factor Analysis

We performed an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) to uncover the underlying structure of the data, which consisted of responses to a range of items intended to measure different constructs. Participants for this were selected using criteria similar to those applied in the confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) phase. The suitability of the data for EFA, as shown in

Table 3. KMO and Bartlett’s test.

Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin measure of sampling adequacy		0.824
Bartlett’s test of sphericity	Approx. Chi-square	15,349.097
	df	2415
	Sig.	<0.001

, was confirmed by a Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy of 0.824 and a highly significant Bartlett’s test of sphericity (χ² = 15349.097, p < 0.001), indicating that the correlations between items were sufficiently large for EFA.

Using principal component analysis for extraction and Varimax with Kaiser normalization for rotation, we identified 14 factors with eigenvalues greater than 1, accounting for 67.235% of the total variance. The scree plot in Figure 2 also supported the retention of these 14 factors based on the point of inflection, which suggested a clear structure in the data.

As shown in

Table 4. Rotated component matrix ^a.

	Component
	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	11	12	13	14
A1									0.755
A2									0.816
A3									0.754
A4									0.757
A5									0.753
A6	0.816
A7	0.747
A8	0.821
A9	0.838
A10	0.826
A11				0.792
A12				0.741
A13				0.806
A14				0.815
A15				0.737
B1		0.781
B2		0.783
B3		0.762
B4		0.831
B5		0.775
B6					0.801
B7					0.804
B8					0.729
B9					0.786
B10					0.758
B11						0.807
B12						0.771
B13						0.686
B14						0.803
B15						0.769
B16													0.765
B17													0.769
B18													0.811
B19													0.805
B20													0.781
C1												0.826
C2												0.762
C3												0.836
C4												0.837
C5												0.673
C6			0.808
C7			0.821
C8			0.776
C9			0.811
C10			0.811
C11											0.785
C12											0.743
C13											0.761
C14											0.759
C15											0.721
C16														0.755
C17														0.762
C18														0.751
C19														0.761
C20														0.732
D1							0.814
D2							0.784
D3							0.766
D4							0.761
D5							0.770
D6								0.796
D7								0.796
D8								0.742
D9								0.780
D10								0.778
D11										0.770
D12										0.815
D13										0.787
D14										0.779
D15										0.756

Extraction method: principal component analysis. Rotation method: Varimax with Kaiser normalization. ^a Rotation converged in 7 iterations.

, the rotated component matrix revealed distinct factors with strong loadings for individual items, highlighting clear associations among them. These items were grouped into factors representing four main dimensions: Pedagogical Competency, Social Competency, Personality Competency, and Professional Competency, each with specific subscales.

For Pedagogical Competency, three subscales were identified: understanding of learners (AA), including items A1 through A5, with factor loadings ranging from 0.753 to 0.816; instructional competencies (AB), covering items A6 through A10, with loadings from 0.747 to 0.838; and evaluation of learning (AC), which encompassed items A11 through A15, with loadings from 0.737 to 0.815. These subscales represent critical aspects of pedagogical skills necessary for effective teaching.

In the domain of Social Competency, four subscales emerged: networks and partnership competencies (BA), comprising items B1 through B5, with loadings from 0.762 to 0.831; collaborative competencies (BB), including items B6 through B10, with loadings from 0.729 to 0.804; competencies to organize (BC), represented by items B11 through B15, with loadings from 0.686 to 0.807; and communication competencies (BD), encompassing items B16 through B20, with loadings from 0.765 to 0.811. These subscales reflect the interpersonal and organizational skills essential for effective collaboration and communication within educational settings.

Personality Competency was divided into four subscales: competencies of being innovative and proactive (CA), with items C1 through C5, loading from 0.673 to 0.837; competencies for strategic planning and analysis (CB), including items C6 through C10, with loadings from 0.776 to 0.821; competencies of determination and dedication (CC), represented by items C11 through C15, with loadings from 0.721 to 0.785; and competencies for the identification of opportunities (CD), encompassing items C16 through C20, with loadings from 0.732 to 0.762. These subscales highlight the personal attributes and strategic abilities crucial for proactive and innovative teaching.

Lastly, Professional Competency included three subscales: teacher leadership competencies (DA), covering items D1 through D5, with loadings from 0.761 to 0.814; entrepreneurial competencies (DB), including items D6 through D10, with loadings from 0.742 to 0.796; and learning competencies (DC), represented by items D11 through D15, with loadings from 0.756 to 0.815. These subscales underscore the professional skills and leadership qualities necessary for effective educational practice.

The exploratory factor analysis (EFA) results provide a robust foundation for understanding the multidimensional nature of the constructs being measured. The internal consistency of each factor was evaluated using Cronbach’s alpha, with values ranging from 0.78 to 0.91, indicating good reliability. These findings will guide future research and interventions aimed at enhancing these constructs within the organization.

4.3. Confirmatory Factor Analysis

As shown in

Table 5. Fit indices of confirmatory factor analysis model.

Fit Index	Acceptable Range	Measurement Value
CMIN		2714.953
DF		2325
CMIN/DF	<3	1.168
GFI	>0.8	0.847
AGFI	>0.8	0.837
RMSEA	<0.08	0.021
IFI	>0.9	0.978
NFI	>0.8	0.866
TLI(NNFI)	>0.9	0.977
CFI	>0.9	0.978
SRMR	<0.05	0.039

, the model’s fit indices, such as Chi-square, GFI, AGFI, and RMSEA, provide a comprehensive assessment of how well the proposed model aligns with the observed data. The Chi-square to degrees of freedom ratio (CMIN/DF) is 1.168, which is well below the recommended threshold of 3, indicating a strong model fit. Additionally, the RMSEA value of 0.021 suggests that the model captures a significant portion of the variance with minimal error, further supporting the model’s validity.

The incremental fit indices, including the Incremental Fit Index (IFI), Tucker–Lewis Index (TLI), and Comparative Fit Index (CFI), all exceed the 0.90 benchmark, with values of 0.978, 0.977, and 0.978, respectively. These high values indicate that the proposed factor structure is well aligned with the data, reinforcing the model’s robustness.

Although the Goodness-of-Fit Index (GFI) and Adjusted Goodness-of-Fit Index (AGFI) are slightly below the preferred thresholds of 0.90, at 0.847 and 0.837, respectively, they still fall within an acceptable range, suggesting that the model’s fit is adequate. The Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR) of 0.039 is below the 0.05 threshold, indicating a good fit between the model and the data.

Therefore, the combination of a low CMIN/DF ratio, a favorable RMSEA, and high incremental fit indices, alongside statistically significant factor loadings, indicates that the measurement model performs well. Although the GFI and AGFI are slightly below the ideal levels, they remain within an acceptable range. Overall, the fit indices provide strong evidence that the model is reliable and can be confidently used for further analysis.

In

Table 6. Results of confirmatory factor analysis.

			Estimate	S.E.	C.R.	p	Factor Loading	CR	AVE
AA	<---	A	1.000				0.778	0.834	0.626
AB	<---	A	0.782	0.072	10.862	***	0.776
AC	<---	A	1.124	0.094	11.956	***	0.818
BA	<---	B	1.000				0.756	0.872	0.631
BB	<---	B	1.032	0.101	10.220	***	0.815
BC	<---	B	1.280	0.124	10.310	***	0.798
BD	<---	B	1.165	0.111	10.473	***	0.807
CA	<---	C	1.000				0.791	0.855	0.595
CB	<---	C	0.750	0.074	10.161	***	0.751
CC	<---	C	0.947	0.090	10.532	***	0.730
CD	<---	C	1.247	0.105	11.898	***	0.812
DA	<---	D	1.000				0.831	0.839	0.635
DB	<---	D	1.080	0.099	10.888	***	0.796
DC	<---	D	0.975	0.094	10.358	***	0.763
A1	<---	AA	1.000				0.873	0.924	0.709
A2	<---	AA	0.957	0.044	21.819	***	0.836
A3	<---	AA	1.009	0.047	21.607	***	0.829
A4	<---	AA	0.817	0.043	19.222	***	0.775
A5	<---	AA	1.075	0.044	24.533	***	0.892
A6	<---	AB	1.000				0.774	0.911	0.671
A7	<---	AB	1.052	0.062	17.074	***	0.803
A8	<---	AB	1.114	0.064	17.497	***	0.819
A9	<---	AB	1.224	0.066	18.570	***	0.862
A10	<---	AB	1.209	0.068	17.904	***	0.836
A11	<---	AC	1.000				0.903	0.898	0.638
A12	<---	AC	0.829	0.042	19.927	***	0.786
A13	<---	AC	0.844	0.042	20.120	***	0.783
A14	<---	AC	0.707	0.037	19.208	***	0.766
A15	<---	AC	0.714	0.039	18.367	***	0.746
B1	<---	BA	1.000				0.753	0.866	0.565
B2	<---	BA	0.931	0.062	15.057	***	0.771
B3	<---	BA	1.027	0.072	14.202	***	0.728
B4	<---	BA	1.085	0.073	14.760	***	0.753
B5	<---	BA	0.959	0.065	14.638	***	0.752
B6	<---	BB	1.000				0.739	0.895	0.630
B7	<---	BB	1.017	0.068	14.954	***	0.760
B8	<---	BB	1.228	0.074	16.559	***	0.836
B9	<---	BB	1.333	0.081	16.447	***	0.834
B10	<---	BB	1.319	0.083	15.809	***	0.796
B11	<---	BC	1.000				0.782	0.898	0.639
B12	<---	BC	0.952	0.058	16.433	***	0.777
B13	<---	BC	1.038	0.059	17.701	***	0.826
B14	<---	BC	1.021	0.058	17.508	***	0.820
B15	<---	BC	0.992	0.059	16.765	***	0.790
B16	<---	BD	1.000				0.767	0.885	0.606
B17	<---	BD	1.022	0.066	15.459	***	0.762
B18	<---	BD	1.076	0.065	16.586	***	0.808
B19	<---	BD	0.990	0.062	15.936	***	0.783
B20	<---	BD	1.073	0.068	15.848	***	0.773
C1	<---	CA	1.000				0.794	0.893	0.624
C2	<---	CA	0.928	0.054	17.034	***	0.794
C3	<---	CA	1.174	0.066	17.766	***	0.818
C4	<---	CA	1.026	0.062	16.458	***	0.776
C5	<---	CA	0.879	0.053	16.471	***	0.768
C6	<---	CB	1.000				0.732	0.887	0.612
C7	<---	CB	1.130	0.072	15.607	***	0.809
C8	<---	CB	1.293	0.082	15.858	***	0.818
C9	<---	CB	1.166	0.078	14.973	***	0.776
C10	<---	CB	1.293	0.087	14.953	***	0.772
C11	<---	CC	1.000				0.804	0.890	0.618
C12	<---	CC	0.956	0.057	16.664	***	0.769
C13	<---	CC	0.988	0.057	17.461	***	0.807
C14	<---	CC	0.806	0.050	16.224	***	0.762
C15	<---	CC	0.887	0.052	17.054	***	0.787
C16	<---	CD	1.000				0.874	0.904	0.654
C17	<---	CD	0.627	0.034	18.586	***	0.767
C18	<---	CD	0.791	0.040	19.625	***	0.792
C19	<---	CD	0.792	0.040	19.939	***	0.802
C20	<---	CD	0.871	0.044	19.851	***	0.804
D1	<---	DA	1.000				0.777	0.899	0.640
D2	<---	DA	1.098	0.063	17.532	***	0.828
D3	<---	DA	1.042	0.061	16.957	***	0.804
D4	<---	DA	0.997	0.061	16.377	***	0.784
D5	<---	DA	0.910	0.054	16.976	***	0.805
D6	<---	DB	1.000				0.849	0.897	0.636
D7	<---	DB	0.801	0.046	17.400	***	0.759
D8	<---	DB	0.747	0.041	18.381	***	0.789
D9	<---	DB	0.885	0.048	18.515	***	0.788
D10	<---	DB	0.921	0.049	18.730	***	0.801
D11	<---	DC	1.000				0.803	0.878	0.591
D12	<---	DC	0.796	0.051	15.525	***	0.745
D13	<---	DC	0.808	0.052	15.608	***	0.745
D14	<---	DC	0.804	0.049	16.383	***	0.770
D15	<---	DC	0.806	0.048	16.722	***	0.779

*** p < 0.001.

, the results of the confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) demonstrate a well-structured and reliable measurement model, characterized by strong factor loadings, high composite reliability (CR), and satisfactory average variance extracted (AVE) values across all constructs. Each competency construct—Pedagogical, Social, Personality, and Professional—exhibited robust factor loadings exceeding 0.7, indicating that the observed variables effectively capture the underlying latent constructs.

The Pedagogical Competency construct displayed factor loadings ranging from 0.776 to 0.818, suggesting that the observed variables (such as understanding learners and instructional competencies) are highly effective in measuring the underlying pedagogical skills. The CR values, which fall between 0.834 and 0.911, further underscore the internal consistency of these measures, ensuring that the items within each subscale (AA, AB, AC) are consistently capturing the same construct across different respondents. The AVE values, ranging from 0.626 to 0.671, indicate that a substantial proportion of the variance in the observed variables is captured by the latent construct, reflecting strong convergent validity.

The Social Competency construct had factor loadings spanning from 0.756 to 0.815, with CR values between 0.872 and 0.898, demonstrating excellent internal consistency across subscales such as networking, collaboration, and communication competencies. Although the AVE values are slightly lower, ranging from 0.606 to 0.639, they are still within the acceptable range, indicating that the observed variables adequately capture the multifaceted nature of social skills. This suggests that the constructs are well defined and measured, even in a domain as complex as Social Competency.

The Personality Competency construct exhibits factor loadings between 0.730 and 0.812, with CR values from 0.855 to 0.904, highlighting the reliability and consistency of the measures. The AVE values, which range from 0.595 to 0.654, confirm that the indicators effectively capture the variance in personality traits such as innovation, strategic planning, and determination. Given the inherent complexity of personality traits, these results provide strong evidence of the model’s ability to reliably measure these constructs.

The Professional Competency construct also demonstrated strong factor loadings, ranging from 0.763 to 0.831, with CR values between 0.839 and 0.897, indicating high internal consistency among the items related to teacher leadership, entrepreneurial skills, and continuous learning competencies. The AVE values, which range from 0.591 to 0.636, suggest that the constructs capture a significant portion of the variance in their indicators, ensuring the validity of these measurements within the model.

The critical ratios (CRs) are all statistically significant (p < 0.001), further confirming the robustness of the relationships between the latent constructs and their indicators. These findings provide strong evidence that the teacherpreneur competencies assessed—Pedagogical, Social, Personality, and Professional—are well defined, consistently measured, and reliably capture the essential dimensions of teacher effectiveness and teacherpreneurship in the educational context. The high factor loadings, CR values, and AVE scores collectively support the reliability and validity of the constructs within the model, providing a solid foundation for the study’s conclusions. The strong internal consistency and convergent validity across all competencies underscore the model’s credibility, confirming its effectiveness in capturing the essential traits and skills that define teacher effectiveness.

Figure 3 shows the Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) analysis of the data, which demonstrated strong relationships between latent variables (A, B, C, D, and their sub-dimensions AA, AB, AC, BA, BB, BC, BD, CA, CB, CC, CD, DA, DB, DC) and their respective indicators. The detailed explanation of these variables and their structure is provided in Table 2. Factor loadings were consistently high, with all values exceeding 0.7, indicating robust correlations between latent variables and their indicators.

For latent variable A, indicators AA, AB, and AC showed factor loadings of 0.778, 0.776, and 0.818, respectively, with a composite reliability (CR) of 0.834 and average variance extracted (AVE) of 0.626, suggesting good internal consistency and convergent validity. Similar patterns were observed for latent variables B, C, and D, where CR values were 0.872, 0.855, and 0.839, and AVE values were 0.631, 0.595, and 0.635, respectively, indicating reliable and valid constructs.

Second-level latent variables such as AA, AB, and AC also exhibited strong factor loadings (e.g., 0.873 to 0.892 for AA), with CR values of 0.924, 0.911, and 0.898, and AVE values of 0.709, 0.671, and 0.638, respectively, further supporting the model’s robustness. Other second-level latent variables (BA, BB, BC, BD, CA, CB, CC, CD, DA, DB, DC) followed this trend, with factor loadings consistently above 0.7, CR values exceeding 0.7, and AVE values over 0.5, confirming high internal consistency and convergent validity across the board.

In conclusion, the SEM analysis indicated that all latent variables were well measured by their indicators, exhibiting strong statistical reliability and validity. The high factor loadings, CR values, and AVE values collectively suggested that the measurement model effectively captured the relationships between latent constructs and their observed variables, ensuring accurate and reliable representation of the underlying data structure.

4.4. Correlation Analysis

The correlation analysis revealed important insights into the relationships among the various dimensions and sub-competencies of the Teacherpreneur Competency Model.

Table 7. Pearson correlation analysis (14 sub-competencies).

	M	S.D.	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	11	12	13	14
AAm (1)	3.516	1.069	1
ABm (2)	3.666	0.975	0.552 ***	1
ACm (3)	3.530	0.977	0.586 ***	0.587 ***	1
BAm (4)	3.659	0.863	0.228 ***	0.266 ***	0.241 ***	1
BBm (5)	3.605	0.956	0.277 ***	0.292 ***	0.283 ***	0.551 ***	1
BCm (6)	3.424	1.027	0.247 ***	0.244 ***	0.255 ***	0.498 ***	0.601 ***	1
BDm (7)	3.370	0.961	0.296 ***	0.286 ***	0.253 ***	0.568 ***	0.555 ***	0.581 ***	1
CAm (8)	3.696	0.966	0.211 ***	0.206 ***	0.262 ***	0.133 ***	0.240 ***	0.112 ***	0.142 ***	1
CBm (9)	3.782	0.899	0.242 ***	0.235 ***	0.274 ***	0.202 ***	0.238 ***	0.273 ***	0.241 ***	0.516 ***	1
CCm (10)	3.619	0.920	0.254 ***	0.208 ***	0.254 ***	0.158 ***	0.211 ***	0.143 ***	0.189 ***	0.525 ***	0.492 ***	1
CDm (11)	3.804	0.949	0.283 ***	0.193 ***	0.313 ***	0.198 ***	0.279 ***	0.261 ***	0.157 ***	0.592 ***	0.537 ***	0.523 ***	1
DAm (12)	3.569	1.006	0.301 ***	0.273 ***	0.259 ***	0.236 ***	0.273 ***	0.278 ***	0.282 ***	0.190 ***	0.203 ***	0.217 ***	0.210 ***	1
DBm (13)	3.636	0.980	0.286 ***	0.203 ***	0.206 ***	0.193 ***	0.246 ***	0.240 ***	0.220 ***	0.173 ***	0.183 ***	0.189 ***	0.241 ***	0.594 ***	1
DCm (14)	3.346	0.902	0.291 ***	0.179 ***	0.168 ***	0.204 ***	0.266 ***	0.301 ***	0.227 ***	0.194 ***	0.235 ***	0.203 ***	0.225 ***	0.556 ***	0.542 ***	1

*** p < 0.001.

demonstrates notable interconnections among the 14 sub-competencies, grouped under four main dimensions: Pedagogical Competency, Social Competency, Personality Competency, and Professional Competency. Pearson correlation analysis highlighted varying degrees of relationships, which reflect differing levels of mutual reinforcement among these competencies.

• Within Pedagogical Competency, significant moderate correlations were observed between understanding of learners (AA), instructional design (AB), and evaluation of learning (AC). For example, AA and AB showed a correlation of r = 0.552, and AA and AC demonstrated a correlation of r = 0.586, both indicating moderate relationships. These results suggest that a deeper understanding of learners is moderately associated with more effective instructional design and evaluation practices. This underscores the importance of a comprehensive approach to developing pedagogical skills to enhance teacher effectiveness.
• For Social Competency, the sub-competencies communication (BD), networking and partnership (BA), collaboration (BB), and organizational competencies (BC) exhibited moderate correlations. For instance, BD and BA had a correlation of r = 0.568, and BD and BC had a correlation of r = 0.581. These moderate correlations suggest that teachers who excel in communication are also proficient in networking, collaboration, and organizational abilities. This highlights the interconnectedness of Social Competencies, which are essential for building relationships and leading initiatives in educational settings—key traits of successful teacherpreneurs.
• The analysis of Personality Competency identified moderate correlations between innovation and proactivity (CA), strategic planning (CB), determination and dedication (CC), and identification of opportunities (CD). Notably, CA and CD had a correlation of r = 0.592, and CB and CD were correlated at r = 0.537, both reflecting moderate relationships. These findings emphasize the importance of a proactive and innovative mindset in identifying and leveraging opportunities in education, underscoring the role of these traits in teacherpreneurship.
• In Professional Competency, moderate correlations were observed among teacher leadership (DA), entrepreneurial leadership (DB), and learning competencies (DC). The correlation between DC and DA was r = 0.556, while DC and DB had a correlation of r = 0.542. These moderate correlations suggest that effective leadership is closely tied to entrepreneurial leadership and a commitment to continuous learning, both critical for driving educational innovation.

Moreover,

Table 8. Pearson correlation analysis (4 main dimensions).

	M	S.D.	Am	Bm	Cm	Dm
Am	3.571	0.852	1
Bm	3.515	0.779	0.381 ***	1
Cm	3.726	0.752	0.359 ***	0.301 ***	1
Dm	3.517	0.811	0.341 ***	0.360 ***	0.302 ***	1

*** p < 0.001.

presents the Pearson correlations among the four main dimensions of teacherpreneur competency: Pedagogical Competency (Am), Social Competency (Bm), Personality Competency (Cm), and Professional Competency (Dm). The correlation coefficients are interpreted as follows, based on the strength of the relationship:

• Pedagogical and Social Competencies (r = 0.381): This indicates a weak but statistically significant positive relationship. It suggests that while effective teaching practices (Pedagogical Competency) are somewhat linked to social skills, the relationship is not particularly strong. Teachers with good instructional skills may also have some Social Competency, but these two areas develop somewhat independently.
• Pedagogical and Personality Competencies (r = 0.359): This also represents a weak correlation. While creativity, innovation, and personality traits like resilience are linked to pedagogical skills, they tend to develop separately. This suggests that teacher education programs should pay separate attention to personality traits alongside pedagogical development.
• Pedagogical and Professional Competencies (r = 0.341): This weak correlation implies that although leadership and Professional Competency are somewhat connected to pedagogical skills, they are still relatively distinct. Teachers who excel in teaching may show some professional leadership, but these competencies develop in parallel rather than together.
• Social and Personality Competencies (r = 0.301): This shows a weak correlation. Social skills (communication, networking, collaboration) and personality traits like proactivity and innovation tend to be weakly linked. Teachers who are strong in Social Competencies may not always be the most creative or proactive, emphasizing the importance of focusing on both areas separately in teacher education programs.
• Social and Professional Competencies (r = 0.360): This correlation is also weak but significant, indicating that teachers with strong social skills tend to have somewhat stronger Professional Competencies. Communication and collaboration are essential aspects of leadership in education, so there is some connection between these two dimensions.
• Personality and Professional Competencies (r = 0.302): Again, this is a weak correlation. Personality traits such as creativity and proactivity are not strongly correlated with professional leadership competencies. This suggests that developing leadership skills in teachers requires more than fostering personality traits alone; specific leadership training is necessary.

The correlations among the four main dimensions of the Teacherpreneur Competency Model reveal generally weak relationships, suggesting that while these competencies are related, they tend to develop independently. This emphasizes the need for teacher education programs to address each competency separately and provide a holistic approach to developing teacherpreneurs. Teachers must develop their pedagogical, social, personality, and professional skills in tandem to become effective leaders and innovators in education.

5. Discussion

The findings of this study not only provide valuable insights into the current state of teacherpreneur competencies among pre-service teachers but also contribute to the broader understanding of how these competencies can be cultivated and assessed. By developing and validating a comprehensive measurement scale, this research addresses a critical need in the field of education, offering a tool that can be used to enhance both individual and institutional practices. The implications of this study are far-reaching, impacting not only the training and development of future educators but also informing educational policies and practices on a global scale. In the following sections, we will discuss the theoretical contributions of this study, the practical adoption of the measurement scale, and the broader implications for future educational discourse.

5.1. Theoretical Contributions

This study makes substantial theoretical contributions by presenting a validated measurement scale that rigorously quantifies teacherpreneur competencies across four essential dimensions: Pedagogical, Social, Personality, and Professional Competencies. These dimensions reflect the complex, multidimensional nature of teacherpreneurship, which blends traditional educational roles with entrepreneurial skills. By establishing a clear framework for understanding and assessing these competencies, this research bridges a significant gap in the literature, offering a model that can be utilized across diverse educational contexts.

In recent years, there has been growing recognition of the importance of integrating entrepreneurial competencies into teacher education to better equip educators for the challenges of the 21st century [3,8,20,32]. Empirical studies have underscored the necessity of fostering an entrepreneurial mindset among teachers, highlighting that such competencies are essential for navigating the rapidly changing educational landscape, characterized by technological advancements and evolving pedagogical paradigms [14]. This study contributes to this evolving discourse by providing a validated measurement tool that can be applied across various educational settings, ensuring that future research and program development are grounded in a robust, empirical understanding of teacherpreneurship.

Moreover, this study expands the theoretical discussion on teacherpreneurship by positioning these competencies as critical for educators in the 21st century, particularly in environments marked by rapid technological advancements and evolving educational paradigms. The measurement scale developed in this study not only emphasizes the importance of strong instructional capabilities but also underscores the critical role of social skills, innovation, and leadership—qualities that are increasingly necessary in today’s educational landscape. Recent research by scholars such as Lasekan and Alarcón has emphasized the significance of these competencies in fostering sustainable innovation within the educational sector [21]. By incorporating these elements into the measurement scale, this study not only fills a gap in the literature but also provides a practical tool for educators and institutions aiming to enhance their teaching practices and leadership potential.

Furthermore, the study’s implications are particularly relevant for pre-service teacher education programs, which play a crucial role in shaping the future of education. The integration of entrepreneurial thinking within teacher education aligns with global educational reforms that prioritize the development of skills essential for the knowledge economy. As highlighted by Haim and Aschauer, there is an increasing need for educators who can navigate the complexities of modern education while driving innovation and sustainability within their institutions [33]. This theoretical model, therefore, offers a robust foundation for future research and program development aimed at cultivating teacherpreneurs who can spearhead educational innovation.

The integration of these competencies not only empowers teachers to innovate but also enhances their adaptability to the rapidly changing demands of the educational sector. However, the correlation analysis revealed valuable insights into the relationships among the four main dimensions of the Teacherpreneur Competency Model—Pedagogical, Social, Personality, and Professional Competencies. While the correlations were generally moderate within individual dimensions, such as the links between Pedagogical Competency sub-competencies (e.g., understanding of learners and instructional design, r = 0.552) and Social Competency sub-competencies (e.g., communication and networking, r = 0.568), the correlations between the main dimensions were relatively weak. For example, the relationship between Pedagogical and Social Competencies (r = 0.381) suggests that these competencies develop somewhat independently. This indicates that although competencies such as pedagogical skills and social skills are interconnected, they do not necessarily reinforce each other in a strong way. Similarly, the weak correlations between Personality Competency and other dimensions, such as Social Competency (r = 0.301), highlight that traits like innovation and proactivity may not directly correlate with social or pedagogical abilities. These findings underscore the need for teacher education programs to take a holistic approach, ensuring that each competency is developed in a balanced manner, as the enhancement of one area may not automatically lead to improvements in others. This approach is essential for preparing teachers who are both innovative and capable of driving educational reforms effectively.

5.2. Adoption of Teacherpreneur Competency Measurement Scale

The validated measurement scale has significant implications for both individual educators and academic institutions, particularly within the context of teacher education programs and pre-service teacher education. On an individual level, pre-service teachers can utilize this scale as a self-assessment tool to gauge their competencies across the identified dimensions. This self-assessment process allows pre-service teachers to identify specific areas for improvement, such as enhancing their innovative practices or strengthening their leadership skills. By engaging in targeted professional development based on their assessment results, pre-service teachers can better align their competencies with the evolving demands of contemporary education. This alignment fosters a more entrepreneurial mindset, which is increasingly recognized as essential in today’s dynamic educational landscape. Research highlights the growing importance of entrepreneurial competencies in education, particularly in preparing future educators to navigate and thrive in complex and changing environments [12].

For academic institutions, particularly those involved in teacher education, this scale offers a reliable method for evaluating the efficacy of their programs. Teacher education programs can use this scale to assess whether they are effectively equipping pre-service teachers with the competencies needed to meet the multifaceted challenges of modern education. For instance, institutions can utilize this scale to monitor the development of teacherpreneurship throughout their curricula, identify gaps in curriculum delivery, and make necessary adjustments to ensure that future educators are well prepared. This is particularly relevant in the context of policy initiatives such as China’s ‘Made in China 2025’, which emphasizes innovation and entrepreneurship. By aligning their curricula with these national priorities, teacher education programs can contribute to the broader economic and social goals by producing educators who are not only skilled in pedagogy but also capable of driving innovation within educational settings.

To achieve such alignment, teacher education programs should integrate activities and experiences that foster creativity, strategic planning, and risk-taking [33]. Research indicates that practical methods, such as workshops on design thinking, innovation challenges, and entrepreneurial projects, are effective in helping pre-service teachers develop these critical skills [8]. Additionally, mentorship programs that feature successful teacherpreneurs can inspire and build confidence in pre-service teachers, offering them real-world examples of how entrepreneurial thinking can be applied within educational contexts. Institutions like the Harvard Graduate School of Education have demonstrated the value of such mentorship in enhancing the entrepreneurial capabilities of future educators.

Moreover, effective communication and collaboration are essential competencies for modern educators, and teacher education programs must prioritize these skills [2]. Emphasizing the importance of networking and partnership building through collaborative projects, community engagement, and professional development opportunities can significantly enhance the professional readiness of pre-service teachers. Encouraging pre-service teachers to work in teams on real-world problems not only hones their problem-solving abilities but also strengthens their capacity to build and leverage professional networks, which are vital for successful teacherpreneurship. Furthermore, to prepare pre-service teachers for leadership roles, teacher education programs should include comprehensive training on teacher leadership and entrepreneurial thinking. This can be achieved through coursework, simulations, and leadership practicums that provide hands-on experience in leading educational initiatives and innovations.

While the development of pedagogical skills is crucial, a balanced approach that equally emphasizes Social, Personality, and Professional Competencies is necessary. Research suggests that a holistic curriculum that integrates these dimensions is essential in preparing pre-service teachers to be well-rounded educators capable of driving educational change [9]. Educational policy-makers should consider revising teacher education curricula to include explicit training on teacherpreneur competencies. This includes integrating entrepreneurship education within the teaching framework and promoting interdisciplinary approaches that combine education with business and Social Sciences. Continuous professional development for in-service teachers is also vital. Offering opportunities for practicing teachers to develop teacherpreneur skills through workshops, online courses, and collaborative networks can help them continuously innovate and improve their teaching practices.

Finally, educational institutions must create environments that encourage and support teacherpreneurship by providing resources, time, and incentives for teachers to engage in innovative practices and collaborative projects. Such initiatives have been shown to enhance student learning and drive school improvement, contributing to the overall advancement of educational quality. By embedding these practices within teacher education programs, institutions can ensure that pre-service teachers are not only prepared to enter the classroom but are also equipped to be leaders and innovators in the field of education.

5.3. Teacherpreneurship and Global Educational Reform: Implications for Future Policy and Innovation in Teacher Education

This study’s findings have broader implications for the global educational discourse, particularly in relation to existing regulations and policies within the educational sector. The emphasis on teacherpreneur competencies aligns with global trends that prioritize innovation, entrepreneurship, and leadership in education. As countries around the world seek to reform their educational systems to better prepare students for the challenges of the 21st century [34], the model presented in this study offers a valuable framework for developing educators who can lead these reforms.

For instance, the integration of teacherpreneurial competencies within teacher education programs is consistent with global educational policies that advocate for the development of skills necessary for the knowledge economy. By adopting this scale, educational institutions worldwide can better align their teacher training programs with international standards, fostering a generation of educators who are not only pedagogically competent but also equipped to drive innovation within their schools and communities.

In the context of policy support, such as the aforementioned ‘Made in China 2025’ policy, which encourages innovation and entrepreneurship, this measurement scale can serve as a critical tool for aligning teacher education with national economic and educational goals. This alignment is crucial as it ensures that the competencies being developed in teachers are directly relevant to the broader socio-economic objectives of the country, thereby enhancing the overall impact of educational reforms.

This study opens multiple avenues for future research while offering a comprehensive framework with significant implications for global teacher education. Longitudinal studies are needed to track the development of teacherpreneur competencies over time, assessing their impact on teaching effectiveness and student outcomes. Additionally, examining the influence of different educational contexts and cultures on the cultivation of these competencies will provide valuable insights into how programs can be tailored to diverse settings. Investigating the role of policy changes and administrative support in fostering teacherpreneurship can further inform both educational practices and policy-making.

By deepening our understanding of the competencies required for teacherpreneurship, this research lays the foundation for developing educators who are not only effective in the classroom but also capable of driving innovation in education on a global scale. Future studies should continue to apply and refine this framework in various cultural and educational contexts, offering further insights into adapting teacher education to the evolving demands of global education systems. Equipping future educators with teacherpreneur skills will empower them to become innovative, collaborative, and proactive leaders capable of enacting positive change in schools and communities. The findings of this study provide a clear roadmap for teacher education programs and policy-makers, enhancing teacher preparation and professional development, and ultimately contributing to a more dynamic and effective educational system.