The U.S. Travel Health Pharmacists’ Role in a Post-COVID-19 Pandemic Era
Abstract
:1. Background
2. Objectives and Methods
3. Results
4. Discussion
4.1. Practices and Regulations
4.2. Vaccinations, Testing, and Counseling for COVID-19
4.2.1. Administering COVID-19 Vaccines and Tests as Part of Travel Services
4.2.2. Incorporating Counseling Regarding COVID-19 into Practice
4.3. Telehealth and Other Technologies
4.3.1. Movement towards and Rationale for Distance Consultations
4.3.2. Other Technologies/Technological Innovations
5. Best Practices and Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Country | COVID-19 Level | Entry Requirements |
---|---|---|
Tanzania | Level 1: Low Risk | Negative COVID-19 laboratory test 24–72 h before departure, completed Traveler’s Health Surveillance Form, and airport health screening which may include on-site rapid antigen testing are all required. COVID-19 vaccination not required. Fully vaccinated travelers are exempt from testing requirements. |
Kenya | Level 2: Moderate Risk | Negative COVID-19 laboratory test 24–72 h before departure, on-site rapid antigen test on arrival, and completed Traveler’s Health Surveillance Form are all required. COVID-19, vaccination is not required. Fully vaccinated travelers and those under age 5 years are exempt from testing requirements. Masks are required indoors. |
Thailand | Level 3: High Risk | Full vaccination or negative COVID-19 laboratory test within 72 h before departure is required. |
Brazil | Level 3: High Risk | COVID-19 vaccination required with limited exception. Negative COVID-19 laboratory test within 24 h before departure is required for unvaccinated travelers. Masks required in certain jurisdictions. |
Argentina | Level 3: High Risk | Negative COVID-19 test not required, electronic sworn statement required confirming absence of COVID-19 symptoms and vaccination status within 48 h before departure. Medical travel insurance with coverage for COVID-19 related events is required. |
Vietnam | Level unknown: Risk unknown | Negative COVID-19 test not required, but health screening procedures upon arrival are required. |
COVID-19 Vaccine Resources | Description | |
---|---|---|
World Health Organization (WHO)—Status of COVID-19 Vaccine within WHO EUL | https://extranet.who.int/pqweb/sites/default/files/documents/Status_COVID_VAX_07July2022.pdf | Guidance document summarizing status of WHO Emergency Use Listing for COVID-19 vaccines, comprehensive of recognized and candidate vaccines worldwide |
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)—COVID-19 Vaccines | https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/vaccines/stay-up-to-date.html#about-vaccines. https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/covid-19/index.html | Information for the general public regarding COVID-19 vaccine recommendations in the U.S. COVID-19 vaccine resources for clinicians and public health professionals |
Immunization Action Coalition (IAC)—Vaccines COVID-19 | https://www.immunize.org/covid-19/ | Comprehensive information and numerous communication tools for professionals and patients/general public for U.S. FDA approved COVID-19 vaccines. |
Johns Hopkins University Coronavirus Resource Center | https://coronavirus.jhu.edu/vaccines | COVID-19 vaccine information and public health data visualization tools. Includes worldwide country-level data. |
American Pharmacists Association (APhA)—COVID-19 Vaccine schedules | https://s3.amazonaws.com/filehost.pharmacist.com/CDN/PDFS/APhA%20Guide%20to%20Vaccination%20Schedules%20Resource%207_27_22_web%20rev.pdf?AWSAccessKeyId=AKIAYICBVAN2V7IWVG4T&Expires=1661624398&Signature=DrhUSbz4t8wTJ2CNGXv3of4inzs%3D. https://www.pharmacist.com/Practice/COVID-19/COVID-19-Vaccines | COVID-19 vaccine resources curated for pharmacists and other clinicians in the U.S. Includes visual COVID-19 vaccination schedules for all ages. |
American Health Systems Pharmacist (ASHP)—COVID-19 Vaccines | https://www.ashp.org/covid-19/vaccines?loginreturnUrl=SSOCheckOnly | Clinical, policy, and logistical COVID-19 vaccine information for U.S. health systems providers |
Government of Canada—Vaccines for COVID-19 | https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/diseases/coronavirus-disease-covid-19/vaccines.html | Information and resources for the general public and professionals regarding COVID-19 vaccines in Canada |
National Health System (NHS)—UK Coronavirus (COVID-19) Vaccines | https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/coronavirus-covid-19/coronavirus-vaccination/coronavirus-vaccine/#:~:text=Everyone%20aged%205%20and%20over,dose%20before%20any%20booster%20doses | Information and resources for the general public and professionals regarding COVID-19 vaccines in the U.K., including for international travel. |
European Commission—COVID-19 Vaccines | https://ec.europa.eu/info/live-work-travel-eu/coronavirus-response/safe-covid-19-vaccines-europeans_en | Public health, policy, and vaccination strategy information for the European Union. |
Nucleic Acid Amplification Test (NAATs) | Antigen Tests | |
---|---|---|
Analyte Detected | Diagnose current infection | Diagnose current infection |
Specimen Type(s) | Nasal, Nasopharyngeal, Oropharyngeal, Sputum, Saliva | Nasal, Nasopharyngeal, Breath |
Sensitivity (for accuracy) | Laboratory tests: generally high Point-of-Care tests: moderate-to-high | Generally moderate-to-high at peak viral load. More accurate if symptomatic |
Specificity | High | High |
Authorized for Use at the Point-of-Care | Most are not | Most are |
Turnaround Time | Most are 1–3 days Some rapid tests in 15 min | Most are 15–30 min |
Cost per Test | Moderate (~$75–$100/test) | Low (~$5–$50/test) |
Advantages | Most sensitive test available Short turnaround time for NAAT Point-of-Care tests (rare) Usually does not need to be repeated to confirm results | Short turnaround time (~15 min) Allows for rapid identification of infected people, thus preventing further virus transmission in the community, workplace, etc. Comparable performance to NAATs for diagnosis in symptomatic persons and whether a culturable virus is present or not |
Disadvantages | Longer turnaround time for lab-based tests (1–3 days) Higher cost per test A positive NAAT diagnostic test should not be repeated within 90 days in case detectable RNA is still present after risk of transmission has passed | Less sensitive (more false negative results) compared to NAATs, especially among asymptomatic people and with some variants May need to be repeated to confirm results (any negative test on a symptomatic person should be confirmed with a PCR or NAAT test (CDC, 2022) |
Reference | Web Link | Summary |
---|---|---|
World Health Organization WHO—Digital Health | https://www.who.int/health-topics/digital-health#tab=tab_1 | Discusses the strategy and resources for use in Digital Health |
Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 (HIPAA) | https://www.cdc.gov/phlp/publications/topic/hipaa.html | Federal law creation of standards to protect sensitive healthcare information being disclosed without the patient’s consent or knowledge |
ITIT Travel Health | https://www.itit-travelhealth.org | App for illness tracking in travelers |
Best Telemedicine Companies in 2022 | https://www.healthline.com/health/best-telemedicine-companies#how-we-chose | Options are based upon ratings types of service, pricing accessibility and vetting |
Chetu Software Solutions | https://www.chetu.com/healthcare/telehealth.php | Example of a IT company that purpose builds telehealth apps- HIPAA compliant |
Itransition—telehealth solutions | https://www.itransition.com/healthcare/telemedicine | Builders of mobile App and web portals—HIPAA compliant |
Cogsworth | https://get.cogsworth.com/telemedicine | Advertises they support allied healthcare, clinics and practices- HIPAA compliant |
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Share and Cite
Hurley-Kim, K.; Babish, K.; Chen, E.; Diaz, A.; Hahn, N.; Evans, D.; Seed, S.M.; Hess, K.M. The U.S. Travel Health Pharmacists’ Role in a Post-COVID-19 Pandemic Era. Pharmacy 2022, 10, 134. https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmacy10050134
Hurley-Kim K, Babish K, Chen E, Diaz A, Hahn N, Evans D, Seed SM, Hess KM. The U.S. Travel Health Pharmacists’ Role in a Post-COVID-19 Pandemic Era. Pharmacy. 2022; 10(5):134. https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmacy10050134
Chicago/Turabian StyleHurley-Kim, Keri, Karina Babish, Eva Chen, Alexis Diaz, Nathan Hahn, Derek Evans, Sheila M. Seed, and Karl M. Hess. 2022. "The U.S. Travel Health Pharmacists’ Role in a Post-COVID-19 Pandemic Era" Pharmacy 10, no. 5: 134. https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmacy10050134