Rainfall: Features and Variations over Saudi Arabia, A Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Seasonal and Annual Rainfall Climatology
Station Information Rainfall (mm) | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Station Name | Lat (°N) | Long (°E) | Altitude (m) | Annual | Wet Season | Dry Season |
Turaif | 31.68 | 38.73 | 852 | 85.5 | 73.9 | 0.4 |
Guriat | 31.40 | 37.28 | 504 | 46.7 | 40.5 | 0.1 |
Arar | 30.90 | 41.14 | 550 | 58.6 | 51.1 | 0.1 |
Al-Jouf | 29.78 | 40.10 | 670 | 56.4 | 45.9 | 0.9 |
Rafha | 29.62 | 43.49 | 445 | 86.9 | 75.9 | 0.1 |
Tabuk | 28.37 | 36.60 | 770 | 29.3 | 20.7 | 1.0 |
Hail | 27.44 | 41.69 | 1000 | 116.4 | 95.3 | 0.5 |
Wejh | 26.20 | 36.47 | 20 | 25.3 | 24.1 | 0.1 |
Gassim | 26.30 | 43.77 | 648 | 145.6 | 125.6 | 0.3 |
Madina | 24.54 | 39.70 | 630 | 64.7 | 49.8 | 4.5 |
Yenbo | 24.14 | 38.06 | 8 | 31.0 | 24.9 | 0.1 |
Al-Qaysumah | 28.33 | 46.12 | 360 | 126.5 | 115.1 | 0.3 |
Dhahran | 26.26 | 50.16 | 22 | 92.5 | 89.8 | 0.0 |
Al-Ahsa | 25.30 | 49.49 | 180 | 84.8 | 79.8 | 0.8 |
Riyadh New | 24.92 | 46.72 | 612 | 110.6 | 104.6 | 0.0 |
Riyadh Old | 24.71 | 46.73 | 610 | 88.9 | 81.2 | 0.3 |
Jeddah | 21.71 | 39.18 | 18 | 51.2 | 47.8 | 0.5 |
Makkah | 21.43 | 39.79 | 273 | 110.6 | 81.6 | 11.5 |
Taif | 21.48 | 40.55 | 1455 | 174.6 | 87.2 | 31.7 |
Al-Baha | 20.29 | 41.64 | 1655 | 142.6 | 79.4 | 29.8 |
Bisha | 19.99 | 42.61 | 1167 | 88.5 | 62.4 | 6.6 |
Wadi-Aldawasser | 20.30 | 45.12 | 617 | 26.1 | 24.2 | 2.8 |
Abha | 18.23 | 42.66 | 2100 | 230.3 | 144.8 | 50.3 |
Khamis-Mushait | 18.29 | 42.80 | 2047 | 189.3 | 85.1 | 67.0 |
Najran | 17.61 | 44.41 | 1213 | 60.1 | 36.8 | 13.1 |
Sharurah | 17.47 | 47.12 | 727 | 70.3 | 43.0 | 20.4 |
Gizan | 16.90 | 42.58 | 4 | 131.8 | 66.7 | 40.5 |
Country normal | 93.5 | 66.8 | 10.6 |
3. Climate Changein Rainfall over Saudi Arabia
3.1. Seasonal and Annual Rainfall Variations
- (a)
- In general, the winter rainfall COV value increases gradually from the north to south of SA. The higher COV values take place in the south of SA, particularly at Albaha, Najran and Sharorah stations, whereas, in the middle of SA, the higher values occur at Yanbo and Alahsa.
- (b)
- COV of the annual rainfall time series appears at the highest values at Alwajh, Yanbo, Jeddah, Najran and Sharorah stations, whereas the lowest values of COV appears at Qaisoma, Albaha and KhamisMeshiat stations.
- (c)
- The summer rainfall COV values are greater than those corresponding to winter, spring, autumn and annual values.
- (d)
- In the spring season, higher variability over the western area of SA (Tabouk, Alwajh, Madinah, Yanbo, Jeddah and Makkah) is observed. However, the lowest values of COV at the mountain stations (Taifh, Elbaha, Bisha, Khamis, Abha) are found.
- (e)
- Autumn rainfall COV value varies from area to area, where the highest values observed over the east in the middle area (Dhahran, Alwajh, Alahsq, Riyadh and at the lowest two stations (Najran, Sharorah).
3.2. Precipitation Variations with Altitude
Topographical Units | Rainfall (mm/Year) | Temperature (°C) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Min. | Mean | Max | Min. | Mean | Max | |
Coastal Area | 17 | 50 | 100 | 24 | 32 | 39 |
Foothill Area | 103 | 170 | 230 | 22 | 29 | 34 |
Mountain Area | 70 | 325 | 650 | 16 | 22 | 28 |
- During winter (December–February): precipitation amounts increase towards the south due to the topography (Figure 10). The highest precipitation (47 mm) is near the high mountains close to the Taif City over the Escarpment in the south and decreases gradually towards the north. Precipitation is usually associated with weak influxes of moist cold air of westerly Mediterranean origin, which is coupled with the local effects of the Red Sea and Escarpment with orographic rainfall occurrences. In addition, the Red Sea coastal area receives a significant amount of rainfall that decreases from south to north (from 24 to 10 mm). Areas within more than 20 mm, isoheight are relevant for groundwater recharge. The study area receives the highest amount of rainfall during the winter and the basins are subject to flooding.
- During spring (March–May): Figure 11 shows a different rainfall pattern. The maximum rainfall (100 mm) is in the high mountains near Taif city and decreases gradually from the west towards the east. The equal spacing of the isoheights indicates that the spatial variation in rainfall is less thanin the winter season. This is due to the Red Sea convergence zone and the Mediterranean depression, which distribute rainfall all over the region with good potential for groundwater recharge.
- During summer (June–August): Figure 12 shows that, during the summer season, there is very little rainfall with the exception of the Taif scarp mountains where rainfall is about 30 mm due to monsoon conditions, which create thunderstorms along the escarpment and the southern part of the Red Sea coast. There is no significant impact of rainfall on the recharge mechanism.
- During fall (September–November): the pattern of rainfall (Figure 13) is similar to that of winter, because the southeasterly air stream weakens as a result of increasing outbreaks of northwesterly air streams. The highest rainfall (50 mm) is in the scarp mountain areas of the Taif area and decreases gradually towards the north. The Red Sea coastal area receives (Figure 13) a good amount of rainfall decreasing from south to north (from 30 to 10 mm). Areas within more than 20 mm isoheight are relevant for less groundwater recharge due to the previous dry summer season. However, the area is also subject to flooding.
3.3. Precipitation Variations with Regions
No. | Station Name | Lat (°N) | Lon (°E) | Altitude (m) | Annual Rainfall (mm) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Turaif | 31.68 | 38.73 | 852 | 84.17 |
2 | Guriat | 31.40 | 37.28 | 504 | 46.66 |
3 | Arar | 30.90 | 41.14 | 550 | 58.60 |
4 | Al-Jouf | 29.78 | 40.10 | 670 | 54.63 |
5 | Rafha | 29.62 | 43.49 | 445 | 85.07 |
6 | Tabuk | 28.37 | 36.60 | 770 | 28.70 |
7 | Al-Qaysumah | 28.33 | 46.12 | 360 | 125.53 |
8 | Hafer-Albaten | 27.90 | 45.53 | 412 | 123.10 |
9 | Hail | 27.44 | 41.69 | 1000 | 113.72 |
10 | Gassim | 26.30 | 43.77 | 648 | 143.88 |
11 | Dammam | 26.50 | 49.80 | 10 | 80.29 |
12 | Dhahran | 26.26 | 50.16 | 22 | 90.23 |
13 | Wejh | 26.20 | 36.47 | 20 | 24.96 |
14 | Al-Ahsa | 25.30 | 49.49 | 180 | 84.78 |
15 | Riyadh New | 24.92 | 46.72 | 612 | 110.59 |
16 | Riyadh Old | 24.71 | 46.73 | 610 | 86.79 |
17 | Madina | 24.54 | 39.70 | 630 | 63.63 |
18 | Yenbo | 24.14 | 38.06 | 8 | 30.26 |
19 | Jeddah | 21.71 | 39.18 | 18 | 52.06 |
20 | Taif | 21.48 | 40.55 | 1455 | 172.17 |
21 | Makkah | 21.43 | 39.79 | 273 | 110.63 |
22 | Al-Baha | 20.29 | 41.64 | 1655 | 142.61 |
23 | Bisha | 19.99 | 42.61 | 1167 | 88.68 |
24 | Wadi-Aldawasser | 20.30 | 45.12 | 617 | 25.46 |
25 | Sulayel | 20.28 | 45.37 | 616 | Not used |
26 | KhamisMushait | 18.29 | 42.80 | 2047 | 190.55 |
27 | Abha | 18.23 | 42.66 | 2100 | 229.14 |
28 | Najran | 17.61 | 44.41 | 1213 | 60.43 |
29 | Sharurah | 17.47 | 47.12 | 727 | 70.29 |
30 | Gizan | 16.90 | 42.58 | 128.64 | 4 |
4. Rainfall Prediction over Saudi Arabia
5. Circulation Systems Affect the Climate of Saudi Arabia
5.1. Influence of the ENSO on the Climate of Saudi Arabia
5.2. Impact of the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) on Saudi ArabianClimate
5.3. The Role of Pressure System on Saudi Arabian Climate
5.4. The Role of Jet Streams on Saudi Arabian Rainfall
6. Conclusions
Acknowledgements
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Reiter, E.R. Handbook for forecasters in the Mediterranean; Technical Report No.5–75; Navy Environmental Research and Prediction Facility: Monterey, CA, USA, 1975. [Google Scholar]
- Hoskins, B.J.; Pedder, M.A. The diagnosis of middle latitude synoptic development. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 1980, 106, 707–719. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lee, T.P.; Silberg, S.R.; Bosart, L.F. A case study of a severe winter storm in the Middle East. Quart Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 1988, 114, 61–90. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Trigo, I.F.; Bigg, G.R.; Davis, T.D. Climatology of cyclogenesis mechanisms in the Mediterranean. Mon.Wea. Rev. 2002, 130, 549–569. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Walter, H.; Lieth, H. Klimadiagramm-Weltatlas; VEB Gustav FischerVerlag: Jena, German, 1967. [Google Scholar]
- Muller, M.J. Selected climatic data for a global set of standard stations for vegetation science. In Tasks for Vegetation Sciences; Lieth, H., Ed.; Kluwer Academic Publishers Group: Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 1982; pp. 143–285. [Google Scholar]
- Moore, E. Gardening in the Middle East; Stacey International: London, UK, 1986; p. 144. [Google Scholar]
- Almazroui, M.; Hasanean, H.M.; Al-Khalaf, A.K.; Abdel Basset, H. Detecting climate change signals in Saudi Arabia using meanannual surface air temperatures. TheorApplClimatol. 2013, 113, 585–598. [Google Scholar]
- Köppen, W. Das geographisca system der klimate. In Handbuch der Klimatologie; Köppen, W., Geiger, G., Eds.; 1.C. Gebr, Borntraeger: Stuttgart, German, 1936; pp. 1–44. [Google Scholar]
- Al-Jerash, M.A. Climatic subdivisions in Saudi Arabia: An application of principal component analysis. Int. J. Climatol. 1985, 5, 307–323. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Al-Taher, A.A. Drought and human adjustment in Saudi Arabia. GeoJournal 1994, 33, 411–422. [Google Scholar]
- Subyani, A.M.; Al-Modayan, A.A.; Al-Ahmadi, F.S. Topographic, seasonal and aridity influences on rainfall variability in western Saudi Arabia. J. Environ. Hydrol. 2010, 18, 1–11. [Google Scholar]
- Ahmed, B.Y.M. Climatic classification of Saudi Arabia: An application of factor cluster analysis. GeoJournal 1997, 41, 69–84. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Abdullah, M.A.; Al-Mazroui, M.A. Climatological study of the southwestern region of Saudi Arabia. I. Rainfall analysis. Clim. Res. 1998, 9, 213–223. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Subyani, A.M. Geostatistical study of annual and seasonal mean rainfall patterns in southwest Saudi Arabia. Hydrol. Sci. J. 2004, 49, 803–817. [Google Scholar]
- Al-Mazroui, M.A. Climatological Study over the Southwestern Region of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia with Special Reference to Rainfall Distribution. Master Thesis, Department of Meteorology, Faculty of Meteorology, Environment and Arid Land Agriculture, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, 1998. [Google Scholar]
- The Ministry of Hydrology. Water Atlas of Saudi Arabia; Water Resource Department, Ministry of Agriculture and Water: Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, 1984.
- Almazroui, M.A. Calibration of TRMM rainfall climatology over Saudi Arabia during 1998–2009. Atmos. Res. 2011a, 99, 400–414. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Almazroui, M.A.; Islam, M.N.; Jones, P.D.; Athar, H.; Rahman, M.A. Recent climate change in the Arabian Peninsula: Seasonal rainfall and temperature climatology of Saudi Arabia for 1979–2009. Atmos. Res. 2012b, 111, 29–45. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Almazroui, M.A.; Islam, M.N.; Athar, H.; Jones, P.D.; Rahman, M.A. Recent climate change in the Arabian Peninsula: annual rainfall and temperature analysis of Saudi Arabia for 1978–2009. Int. J. Climatol. 2012a, 32, 953–966. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Abdelmola, Y.K. Surface Synoptic Type over Central Sudan during 1994–2003. Ph.D. Thesis, Department of Meteorology and Climatology, Aristotle University, Thessaloniki, Greece, 2009. [Google Scholar]
- Islam, M.N.; Das, S.; Uyeda, H. Calibration of TRMM derived rainfall over Nepal during 1998–2007. Open Atmos. Sci. J. 2010, 4, 12–23. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- IPCC. Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 2007. [Google Scholar]
- IPCC-WGI. Climate change 1995. In The Scienceof Climate Change; Houghton, J.T., MeiraFilho, L.G., Bruce, J., Lee, H., Callander, B.A., Haites, E., Harris, N., Maskell, K., Eds.; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 1996. [Google Scholar]
- Fisher, M.; Membery, D.A. Climate. In Vegetation of the Arabian Peninsula; Ghazanfar, S.A., Fisher, M., Eds.; Kluwer Academic Press: Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 1998; pp. 5–38. [Google Scholar]
- Hasanean, H.M. Middle East Meteorology. Avaliable online: http://www.eolss.net/ (accessed on 7 August 2015).
- Qureshi, S.; Khan, N. Estimation of climatic transition in Riyadh (Saudi Arabia) in global warming perspectives. GeoJournal 1994, 33, 423–432. [Google Scholar]
- Barthand, H.; rank Steinkohl, F. Origin of winter precipitation in the central coastal lowlands of Saudi Arabia. J. Arid Environ. 2004, 57, 101–115. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shwehdi, M.H. Thunderstorm distribution and frequency in Saudi Arabia. J. Geophys. Eng. 2005, 2, 252–267. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chakraborty, A.; Behera, S.K.; Mujumdar, M.; Ohba, R.; Yamagata, T. Diagnosis of tropospheric moisture over Saudi Arabia and influences of IOD and ENSO. Mon. Wea. Rev. 2006a, 134, 598–616. [Google Scholar]
- Harley, D.G. Frontal contour analysis of polar low. Meteorol. Meteorol Mag. 1960, 89, 146–147. [Google Scholar]
- Businger, S.; Reed, R.J. Cyclogenesis in cold air masses. Weather Forecast. 1989, 4, 133–156. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yanase, W.; Niino, H.; Saito, K. High-resolution numerical simulation of a polar low. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2002. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fu, G.; Niino, H.; Kimura, R.; Kato, T. A polar low over the Japan Sea on 21 January 1997, part I: Observational analysis. Mon. Wea. Rev. 2004, 132, 1537–1551. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Alamodi, A.O.; Mashat, A.S.; Abdel Basset, H.M. On the Relation between Atmospheric Pressure Systems and Rainfall Prediction over the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia; Project Number: 302/427; King Abdelaziz University: Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, 2008. [Google Scholar]
- Liebmann, B.; Dole, R.M.; Jones, C.; Allured, D.; Blade, I. Influence of choice of time period on global surface temperature trend estimates. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 2010, 91, 1485–1491. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Al-Ahmadi, K.; Al-Ahmadi, S. Rainfall-altitude Relationship in Saudi Arabia. Adv. Meteorol. 2013. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Abdullah, M.A.; Afeef, M.A.; Azhari, A.A. Climatological Study over Asir for Possible Choice of Weather Modification Site; King Abdul Aziz University: Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, 1992. [Google Scholar]
- Second National Communication of Kingdom of Saudi Arabia Report. Available online: http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/natc/saunc2.pdf (accessed on 26 January 2014).
- PME First National Communication for the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Available online: http://jrcc.sa/reports_files/First_National_Communication_SAUDI_ARABIA.pdf (accessed on 26 January 2014).
- Almazroui, M.A. Sensitivity of a regional climate model on the simulationof high intensity rainfall events over the Arabian Peninsulaand around Jeddah (Saudi Arabia). Theor. Appl. Climatol. 2011, 104, 261–276. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Almazroui, M.A. Simulation of present and future climate of Saudi Arabia using a regional climate model (PRECIS). Int. J. Climatol. 2013, 33, 2247–2259. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Alkolibi, F.M. Possible effects of global warming on agriculture and water resources in Saudi Arabia: Impacts and responses. Clim. Chang. 2002, 54, 225–245. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Met Office. Climate: Observations, Projections and Impacts. Available online: http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/media/pdf/j/m/Saudi_Arabia.pdf (accessed on 28 January 2014).
- Tarawneh, Q.Y. Spatial variation of Saudi Arabia’s annual rainfall using a regional prediction model. Arabian J. Geosci. 2015, 8, 4147–4160. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rehman, S.; El Gebiely, M. Study of meteorological parameters of coastal regions of SaudiArabia using wavelets. In Proceedings of the 2nd WSEAS International Conference on Wavelets Theory and Applications in Applied Mathematics, Signal Processing and Modern Science, Istanbul, Turkey, 27–30 May 2008.
- Rogers, J.C. The Association between the North Atlantic Oscillation and the Southern Oscillation in the Northern Hemisphere. Mon. Wea. Rev. 1984, 112, 1999–2015. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ropelewski, C.F.; Halpert, M.S. Global and regional scale precipitation patterns associated with El Nino/Southern Oscillation. Mon.Wea. Rev. 1987, 115, 1606–1626. [Google Scholar]
- Cullen, H.M.; Kaplan, A.; Arkin, P.A.; deMenocal, P.B. Impact of the North Atlantic Oscillation on Middle Eastern climate and stream flow. Clim. Chang. 2002, 55, 315–338. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lolis, C.J.; Bartzokas, A.; Metaxas, D.A. Spatial co-variability of the climatic parameters in the Greek area. Int. J. Climatol. 1999, 19, 185–196. [Google Scholar]
- Yarnal, B. The effect of weather map scale on the results of a synoptic climatology. J. Clim. 1984, 4, 481–493. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kozuchowski, K.M. Variations of hemispheric zonal index since 1899 and its relationships with air temperature. Int. J. Climatol. 1993, 13, 853–864. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kotwickiand, V.; AlSulaimani, Z. Climates of the Arabian Peninsula—Past, present, future. Int.J. Clim. Chang. Strat. Manag. 2009, 1, 297–310. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chakraborty, A.; Mujumdar, M.; Behera, S.K.; Ohba, R.; Yamagata, T. A cyclone over Saudi Arabia on 5 January 2002: A case study. Meteorol. Atmos. Phys. 2006b, 93, 115–122. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Webster, P.J.; Magana, V.O.; Palmer, T.N.; Shukla, J.; Tomas, R.A.; Yanai, M.; Yasunari, T. Monsoons: Processes, predictability, and the prospects for prediction. J. Geophys. Res. Oceans 1998, 103, 14451–14510. [Google Scholar]
- Walker, G.T. Correlation in seasonal variations of weather. VIII: A preliminary study of world weather. Mem. Indian Meteor. Dept. 1923, 24, 75–131. [Google Scholar]
- Shukla, J.; Paolino, D. The Southern Oscillation and long-range forecasting of summer monsoon rainfall over India. Mon. Wea. Rev. 1983, 111, 1830–1837. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Joseph, P.V.; Eischeid, J.K.; Pyle, R.J. Interannual variability of the onset of the Indian summer monsoon and its association with atmospheric features, El Niño, and sea surface temperature anomalies. J. Clim. 1994, 7, 81–105. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rodo, X.; Baert, E.; Comin, F.A. Variations in seasonal rainfall in southern Europe during the present century: Relationships with the North Atlantic Oscillation and the El Nino Southern Oscillation. Clim. Dyn. Vol. 1997, 13, 275–284. [Google Scholar]
- Nazemosadat, M.J.; Cordery, I. On the relationships between ENSO and autumn rainfall in Iran. Int. J. Climatol. 2000a, 1, 47–62. [Google Scholar]
- Nazemosadat, M.J.; Cordery, I. The impact of ENSO on winter rainfall in Iran. In Hydro 2000: Interactive Hydrology; Engineers Australia: Canberra, ACT, Australia, 2000; pp. 538–543. [Google Scholar]
- Hasanean, H.M. Teleconnection between global climatic events, atmospheric circulation change and stream flow over the River Nile. J. Meteorol. 2003, 28, 161–177. [Google Scholar]
- Nazemosadat, M.J.; Samani, N.; Barry, D.A.; Niko, M.M. ENSO forcing on climate change in Iran: Precipitation analysis. Iran. J. Sci. Technol. Trans. B Eng. 2006, 30, 555–565. [Google Scholar]
- Mariotti, A.; Zeng, N.; Lau, K-M. Euro-Mediterranean rainfall and ENSO—A seasonally varying relationship. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2002, 29. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mariotti, A.; Ballabrera-Poy, J.; Zeng, N. Tropical influence on Euro-Asian autumn rainfall. Clim. Dyn. 2005, 24, 511–521. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Athar, H.; Almazroui, M.A.; Islam, M.N.; Adnan Abid, M.; Azhar, E. Effectof mid-latitude blocking anticyclones on the weather of the Arabian Peninsula. Int. J. Climatol. 2012, 33, 585–598. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hafez, Y.Y.; Almazroui, M.A. The role played by blocking systems over Europe in abnormal weather over Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in Summer 2010. Adv. Meteorol. 2013. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Xieand, P.; Arkin, P.A. Global precipitation: A 17year monthly analysis based on gauge observations, satellite estimates, and numerical model outputs. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 1997, 78, 2539–2558. [Google Scholar]
- North Atlantic Oscillation. Avaliable online: http://www.ldeo.columbia.edu/res/pi/NAO/ (accessed on 7 August 2015).
- Hurrell, J.W.K.; Ottersenand, G.; Visbeck, M. The North Atlantic Oscillation climatic significance and environmental impact. Geophys. Monogr. 2003, 134. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mann, M.E. Large-scale climate variability and connections with the Middle East in past centuries. Clim. Chang. 2002, 55. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Delworth, T.; Manabe, S.; Stouffer, R.J. Interdecadal variations of the thermohalinecirculation in a coupled ocean-atmosphere model. J. Clim. 1993, 6, 1993–2011. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kushnir, Y. Interdecadal variations in North Atlantic Sea surface temperature and associated atmospheric conditions. J. Clim. 1994, 7, 141–157. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mann, M.E.; Park, J. Joint spatial-temporal modes of surface temperature and sea level pressure variability in the Northern Hemisphere during the last century. J. Clim. 1996, 9, 2137–2162. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cullen, H.M.; deMenocal, P.B. North Atlantic influence on Tigris-Euphrates stream flow. Int. J. Climatol. 2000, 20, 853–863. [Google Scholar]
- Felis, T.J.; Pätzold, J.; Loya, Y.; Fine, M.; Nawar, A.H.; Wefer, G. A coral oxygen isotoperecord from the northern Red Sea documenting NAO, ENSO, and North Pacific teleconnections on Middle East climate variability since the year 1750. Paleoceanography 2000, 15, 679–694. [Google Scholar]
- Rimbu, N.; Lohmann, G.; Felis, T.J.; Patzold, J. Arctic Oscillation signature in a Red Sea coral. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2001, 28, 2959–2962. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Luterbacher, J.; Xoplaki, E. 500-year winter temperature and precipitation variability over the Mediterranean area and its connection to the large-scale atmospheric circulation. In Mediterranean Climate-Variability and Trends; Bolle, H.-J., Ed.; Springer Verlag: Berlin, Germany, 2003; pp. 133–153. [Google Scholar]
- Rimbu, N.; Felis, T.J.; Lohmann, G.; Pätzold, J. Winter and summer climate patterns in the European-Middle East during recent centuries as documented in a northernRed Sea coral record. Holocene 2006, 16, 321–330. [Google Scholar]
- Felis, T.J.; Lohmann, G.; Kuhnert, H.; Lorenz, S.J.; Scholz, D.; Pätzold, J.; Al-Rousan, S.A.; Al Moghrabi, S.M. Increased seasonality in Middle East temperatures during the last interglacial period. Nature 2004, 429, 164–168. [Google Scholar]
- Slonosky, V.C.; Yiou, P. Does the NAO index represent zonal flow?The influence of the NAO on North Atlantic surface temperature. Clim. Dyn. 2002, 19, 17–30. [Google Scholar]
- Wang, C. Atlantic climate variability and its associated atmospheric cells. J.Clim. 2002, 15, 1516–1536. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Liu, Y.M.; Wu, G.X.; Liu, H.; Liu, P. Dynamical effects of condensation heating on the subtropical anticyclones in the Eastern Hemisphere. Clim. Dyn. 2001, 17, 327–338. [Google Scholar]
- Rodwell, M.R.; Hoskins, B.J. Subtropical anticyclones and monsoons. J. Clim. 2001, 14, 3192–3211. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fleitmanna, D.; Burnsb, S.J.; Manginic, A.; Mudelseed, M.; Kramersa, J.; Villaa, I.; Neffc, U.; Al-Subbarye, A.A.; Buettnera, A.; Hipplera, D.; Matter, A. Holocene ITCZ and Indian monsoon dynamics recorded in stalagmites from Oman and Yemen (Socotra). Quat. Sci. Rev. 2007, 26, 170–188. [Google Scholar]
- Almazroui, M.A.; Al Khalaf, A.K.; Abdel Basset, H.M.; Hasanean, H.M. Detecting Climate Change Signals in Saudi Arabia Using Surface Temperature; King Abdelaziz University: Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, 2009. [Google Scholar]
- Hasanean, H.M.; Almazrouia, M.A.; Jonesa, P.D.; Alamoudi, A.A. Siberian High variability and its teleconnections with tropical circulations and surface air temperature over Saudi Arabia. Clim. Dyn. 2013, 41, 2003–2018. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hasanean, H.M.; Abdel Basset, H.; Hussin, M.A.A. On the relationship between climatic elements and pressure systems over Saudi Arabia in winter season. Adv. Atmos. Sci. 2015, 32, 690–703. [Google Scholar]
- Findlater, J. Inter-hemispheric transport of air in lower troposphere over Western Indian Ocean. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 1969, 95, 362–380. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Vorhees, C.D.; Murphree, T.; Pfeiffer, L.K. Tropical climate variations and their impacts on the Northwest Indian Ocean—Northeast Africa-Southwest Asia Region. In Proceedings of the 27th Conference on Hurricanes and Tropical Meteorology, Monterey, CA, USA, 24 April 2006.
- Whitney, L.F. Relationship of the subtropical jet stream to severe local storms. Mon. Wea. Rev. 1977, 105, 398–412. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Uccelliniand, L.W.; Kocin, P.J. The interaction of jet streak circulations during heavy snow events along the east coast of the United States. Wea. Forecast. 1987, 2, 289–308. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hakim, G.J.; Uccellini, L.W. Diagnosing coupled jet-streak circulations for a NorthernPlains snow band from the operational nested grid model. Wea. Forecast. 1992, 7, 26–48. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kaplan, M.L.; Lin, Y.; Hamilton, D.W.; Rozumalski, R.A. The numerical simulation of an unbalanced jetlet and its role in the Palm Sunday 1994 Tornado outbreak in Alabama and Georgia. Mon. Wea. Rev. 1998, 126, 2133–2165. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zangvil, A.; Drulan, P. Upper air trough axis orientation and the spatial distribution of rainfall over Israel. Int. J. Climatol. 1990, 10, 57–62. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sahsamanoglou, H.S.; Makrogiannis, T.J.; Kallimopoulos, P.D. Some aspect of the basic characteristics of the Siberian anticyclone. Int. J. Climatol. 1991, 11, 827–839. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sarroni, H.; Bitan, A.; Alpert, P.; Ziv, B. Continental polar outbreaks into the Levant and Eastern Mediterranean. Int. J. Climatol. 1996, 16, 1175–1191. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nasrallah, H.A.; Nieplova, E.; Ramadan, E. Warm season extreme temperature events in Kuwait. J. Arid. Environ. Vol. 2004, 56, 357–371. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
© 2015 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Hasanean, H.; Almazroui, M. Rainfall: Features and Variations over Saudi Arabia, A Review. Climate 2015, 3, 578-626. https://doi.org/10.3390/cli3030578
Hasanean H, Almazroui M. Rainfall: Features and Variations over Saudi Arabia, A Review. Climate. 2015; 3(3):578-626. https://doi.org/10.3390/cli3030578
Chicago/Turabian StyleHasanean, Hosny, and Mansour Almazroui. 2015. "Rainfall: Features and Variations over Saudi Arabia, A Review" Climate 3, no. 3: 578-626. https://doi.org/10.3390/cli3030578