Indigenous Subsistence Practices of the Sakha Horse Herders under Changing Climate in the Arctic

Abstract

This article provides, firstly, an overview of Arctic traditional horse herding as one of the Indigenous subsistence practices of the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia). It discusses the origins, characteristics, and spiritual and material importance of Sakha horses and horse herding practices to inform the overall understanding of this traditional subsistence activity, which remains largely unexplored. Secondly, by conducting in-depth semi-structured interviews with Indigenous Sakha horse herders, this study explores the ways in which Indigenous subsistence practices are evolving and reacting to the climate and environmental changes. Results show that climate change is altering the local ecosystem and introducing new challenges to communities in Central Yakutia. Local herders describe climate change as a complex interplay of diverse transformations rather than a singular phenomenon. While historical adaptation strategies relied on the flexibility of traditional practices, today, this flexibility is often hindered by non-climatic factors. This article further discusses adaptability of Indigenous practices to climate change and offers recommendations for their development, particularly traditional horse herding. Future research related to climate change and Arctic Indigenous communities should encompass deeper and broader aspects, covering historical, cultural, social, and economic contexts and the worldviews of Indigenous peoples, distinct from Western perspectives.

1. Introduction

In recent decades, the rate of temperature increase in the Arctic region has surpassed that of the global average, a phenomenon known as Arctic amplification. A study of Rantanen et al. [1] demonstrated that the Arctic has undergone a warming rate nearly four times greater than the global average. The Republic of Sakha (Yakutia), situated within the Arctic region, is also affected by this accelerated warming. As a result, permafrost temperature increased between 0.5 °C and 2 °C at depths where permafrost remains unaffected by seasonal temperature fluctuations throughout the year [2,3]. Additionally, there has been an observed increase in the thickness of the active layer across most of the Arctic [3,4]. In the RCP8.5 scenario, where climate change mitigation measures are not implemented, it is projected that by the end of the 21st century, the coastal area of the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) could likely experience an increase in temperature of 5.3 °C to 8.5 °C [5].

With a growing research focus on the rapid environmental transformations occurring in the Arctic, considerable attention is being directed towards studying how these transformations affect Indigenous communities and their traditional practices. Observations of climate change impacts on northern communities have been gathered from various regions across the circumpolar area [6]. Although traditional ways strengthen communities, representing strong resilience, creativity, and adaptive responsiveness to emerging challenges [7], global economic, climatic, and cultural changes are affecting the original habitat and traditional ways of life of Indigenous peoples [8,9,10]. In addition, limited representation and voice of Indigenous peoples in governance strategies complicates their ability to address these challenges effectively [11].

In this regard, understanding the consequences of climate and environmental changes for Indigenous communities is important. Indigenous traditional practices encompass various activities, such as herding (reindeer, horse), hunting (land and marine mammals), whaling, fishing, gathering, clothing, and other activities. These activities historically demonstrated a sustainable interaction with the environment, drawing on the longstanding knowledge and experiences of Indigenous peoples [12,13]. One such traditional activity in the Arctic is horse herding in the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia), located in northeastern Siberia, Russia. Horse herding is a vital means of subsistence for Indigenous Sakha (Yakut) people, not only forming a significant part of the Republic’s food base in the harsh climatic conditions of the Arctic but also bearing important cultural, spiritual, and historical significance. The Sakha horse is the most sturdy and resistant to cold, the most northerly distributed breed on earth [14], and the only breed adapted to year-round free grazing in the Arctic [15]. Historical endurance and resilience to fluctuating natural-climatic conditions represent unique attributes of these animals. A large number of studies have been conducted to study the impact of climate change on the traditional subsistence practices of Arctic Indigenous peoples, encompassing activities such as hunting, reindeer husbandry, and fishing [16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25], including in the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) [22,26,27,28]. A study by Crate et al. [29] illustrates that climate change is posing challenges to continuation of the traditional practices of the Sakha people. However, the impact of climate change on Arctic horse herding remains largely underexplored, with studies focusing on other aspects of the Sakha horse breed—biochemical studies on adaptation [30,31], physiological mechanisms [32,33], improving the technology of horse breeding [34], and genetic structure [35]. Hence, this study presents an examination of the traditional practice of horse herding in Central Yakutia within the framework of contemporary environmental changes. This work aims to advance scholarship on how climate change affects the traditional practices of Indigenous peoples, addressing various dimensions, including environmental, social, and cultural factors and broader discussions concerning Indigenous subsistence activities. Examining the effects of climate change can provide valuable insights for informing policies and interventions aimed at mitigating adverse consequences of climate change.

2. Arctic Traditional Horse Herding in the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia)

2.1. The Republic of Sakha (Yakutia)

The Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) is the largest federal subject of the Russian Federation, located in the northeastern part of Siberia (see Figure 1).

The total area is 3,083,523 km², and the population is 997,565 people [36]. Population density is low (0.32 people/km²) [36], with many remote and sparsely populated uluuses (districts). The Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) consists of 36 administrative units, including 34 uluuses (districts) and 2 urban districts. More than 40% of the Republic’s area lies above the Arctic Circle. Permafrost covers most of the region, transitioning into a zone of discontinuous permafrost in the southwest. Four geographical zones determine the natural features—taiga (~80% of the area), forest tundra, tundra, and Arctic desert. The climate is extremely continental, with bitterly cold winters lasting nine months and short warm summers. The absolute minimum temperature is below −50 °C, with certain areas, primarily in depressions, plummeting to as low as −71.2 °C. These unfavorable extreme natural and climatic conditions historically determined subsistence practices of the local people, such as reindeer and horse herding, hunting, fishing, and gathering. These activities are practiced all year round. Traditional horse herding is mostly practiced by the Sakha people. With a population of 478,409 people, Sakha are the largest of the Indigenous peoples of Siberia within the borders of Russia [36]. The majority of them (466,492 people) live within the Republic. Their main traditional activities are horse and cattle breeding, hunting, fishing, and gathering. Today, horse breeding is practiced in all uluuses and more widespread in Central Yakutia and the Vilyuy area.

In this article, specific terminology is used in the Sakha language, and explanations are given in

Table 1. Terminology used in the article.

Term	Description
Alaas Sakha: алаас	Land/meadow with nutrient-rich grass surrounded by forest and typically with a lake in the middle. It is formed by several cycles of freezing and thawing of permafrost. Previously, each Sakha family lived in alaas, which fostered a distinctive cultural heritage. Today, alaas remains a vital place for Sakha people, serving as sites for haymaking, saiylyk (summer habitat), cattle and horse grazing, herb gathering, fishing, and hunting. Today in the villages of Central Yakutia, each family is usually allocated several alaas. Alaas holds significance not only for sustenance but also for its spiritual importance.
Kencheeri Sakha: кэнчээри	The grass that grows in autumn after haymaking (after-grass). It is the main food for horses during winter pasture.
Khahyy Sakha: хаhыы	Winter grazing of horses.
Erteehun or Ert Sakha: Өртөөһүн/өрт	Traditional controlled/prescribed burn.
Uluus Sakha: улуус	Contemporary interpretation: A district, an administrative unit within the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia). However, the term “uluus” holds a broader definition.

.

2.2. Origin of the Sakha Horse Breed

This section discusses the origin of Sakha horses to provide context within the Sakha culture and their role in Indigenous subsistence practices. Although the dominating body of literature commonly refers to the local breed of horse as “Yakut” or “Yakutian”, the term “Sakha” will be used throughout this work because “Sakha” is a self-appellation of the Sakha people (endonym), while “Yakut” is a foreign appellation (exonym).

The evolutionary origin of the Sakha horse breed is still controversial. There are three main hypotheses.

In the 19th century, remains of a wild horse dating back to the post-Tertiary era were discovered. Its bones, often found alongside mammoth and rhinoceros bones, were found on the banks of the Aldan and Yana rivers, as well as within the Taymyr peninsula and the Novosibirsk archipelago in the Arctic Ocean. These findings indicated that ancient horses had white coats, similar to those frequently seen among contemporary Sakha horses in the Verkhoyansk and Kolyma regions (Figure 2) [37,38,39]. In nature, white, light gray, or albino ungulates are rare because of their great vulnerability to predators [40]. Later, Seroshevsky [41] acknowledged clear physiological differences between the Mongolian and Sakha breeds. Thus, the first “northern” hypothesis was developed. Middendorf, in his book Travel to the North and East of Siberia [42], wrote that historically, the cornerstone of the Sakha economy was nomadic horse breeding, and the Sakha people transitioned to cattle breeding relatively recently. Chersky [37] states that the similarities between the northern and southern horse breeds is not the result of the gradual penetration of horse breeding to the north but rather testifies to the distribution of the animals of the “mammoth complex” from north to south in the post-glacial period.

The second hypothesis states that the Sakha breed of horses is a mix of southern and wild northern horses of the Ice Age [43,44]. Guryev’s genetic analysis [43] showed a high genetic similarity of the Sakha horses of Central Yakutia with Mongol and Kazakh breeds. However, he also found significant genetic differences between the ecotypes of Sakha and southern horses in terms of polymorphic blood serum proteins, erythrocyte antigens, and the allelic genes that control them. Guryev concluded that the northern Sakha, particularly the Verkhoyansk and Kolyma breeds, are associated with the formation of two or three small groups that do not match in genetic structure.

The third hypothesis argues that the Sakha horse is a direct descendant of the southern steppe horses, brought by the ancestors of the Sakha from Transbaikalia. It relates to the history of the formation of the Sakha, whose genesis is still being discussed. Alekseev [45] states that the Sakha people developed breeding technologies that allowed them to adapt horses to new cold conditions. Pablo Librado et al. [46] carried out a genetic analysis of nine modern horses and two ancient specimens excavated in the Republic of Sakha and dated ∼5200 years ago. Comparing the genomes of these horses, the authors concluded that modern Sakha horses do not originate from local horses that inhabited the region until the middle of the Holocene. However, convergent evolution with local human populations and woolly mammoths has been found. These horses have evolved rapidly over centuries to adapt to the challenging and extreme climate of the region.

Despite this apparently indisputable study, Ivanov [47] suggests that it is still necessary to continue the search for the autochthonous presence in the origin of the Sakha breed, with a certain improvement in methodological approaches and the place of research, expanding the sample in the northern uluuses to at least 30 specimens.

Understanding the origins of Sakha horses opens up a complex discussion regarding the origins of the Sakha people themselves. Scientific debates about the origins of the Sakha people persist to this day due to their geographical isolation and the presence of Mongolian words in their language. A connection with these gaps from other related Turkic peoples has given rise to the “Yakut problem” [48]. Horses, both on the material and spiritual levels, are deeply woven into the culture and self-identity of the Sakha people. Studying and preserving the traditional practice of horse breeding underscores not only its importance for identity but also the self-determination of the Sakha people.

2.3. Traditional Horse Herding Practice in the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia)

Today, traditional horse herding in the Republic of Sakha is year-round, open-air free grazing in natural conditions, when herds withstand both −60 °C winter frosts and +30 °C summer highs. During winter, horses forage by digging through snowpack to find food (khahyy). A typical single semi-domesticated herd consists of approximately 10 to 15 mares led by one stallion, along with their offspring. Traditionally, the lead stallion and the mother mare never have their tails or manes cut. Neither bridle, rope, whip, nor any other device touches them. Continuously grazing, the herd independently shifts to different pastures. Each herd follows its own unique route, where other herds never enter. The route of the grazing area is determined by the stallion, making it crucial for breeders to select one that can find food in close proximity, avoiding extensive herd movements that may result in exhaustion and the mortality of young animals and in-foal mares during bad years. The khahyy season usually lasts from November to May. Foaling begins in April and ends in July. Starting in mid-October, foals are separated from their mothers, and the majority of them are slaughtered, with a few selected for breeding [27].

The Sakha horse breed requires little human oversight during the year. Herders employ a strategic approach in overseeing their herds, taking into account factors such as weather and pasture conditions. They monitor the condition of the herd from time to time by finding them along their route (Figure 3a). Depending on weather and during particularly severe winters, herders provide supplementary feeding to ensure the health and survival of the horses, especially mares. They do this by feeding them hay prepared during the summer in a fenced territory or paddock (Figure 3b) near their special cabins—“uuteens”. These dwellings are commonly located in remote areas distant from the village, where herders reside year-round while also hunting and fishing. They visit the village to replenish supplies and see their families from time to time. Nevertheless, nowadays, some breeders opt to live within villages, going to the uuteens to manage their herds. Failure to establish proper stationary maintenance and timely care can lead to emaciation and the loss of horses.

As the climate changes rapidly [5], studying horse adaptation is important for assessing their resilience and developing management strategies. This includes understanding the physiological and behavioral characteristics that allow them to not only survive but thrive in extreme environments. The following are key advantages that Sakha horses have developed to endure the long, severe winters in their native environment [49]:

• Sakha horses are small to medium-sized, have a stocky build, massive head, short neck, strong legs, and calm reaction to external stimuli (Figure 4) [50];
• A thick, dense coat that helps insulate themselves against the cold [51];
• Strong hooves that allow them to break through ice and snow to access food [50];
• They have a lower metabolic rate than outbred horses, which helps conserve energy [49]. They require less food during this period and can maintain their body condition with minimal forage, resulting in an ability to conserve energy during periods of limited food availability;
• The horses accumulate a layer of subcutaneous fat during the summer and autumn months. This fat layer serves as an additional source of insulation and energy during the winter when forage is scarce. The thickness of the fat layer in adult horses is 8–10 cm on the cervical crest and 4.5 cm on the peritoneum. In foals, these dimensions are 5.5 cm and 1.8 cm, respectively [52];
• Ability to consume snow for hydration. They can melt snow in their mouths, providing water without lowering their core body temperature [50];
• Sakha horses remain active throughout the season. During winter, they sleep in a standing posture. They continue to move and graze, although at a slower pace [53];
• The transition of internal systems to increased energy-saving mode. The breathing rate decreases, and the heartbeat slows down. Simultaneously, the horse is able to cover long distances [50];
• Purebred Sakha horses are better able to maintain a constant body temperature throughout the year than crossbred animals [49].

Cultural and Economic Significance

These remarkable features of the Sakha horse breed make it exceptionally important and significant both for the culture and economy of the Sakha people. Historically, they have represented the main branch of the economy of the Yakuts [14] and are still playing a vital role in providing meat, milk, and clothing. Horses are well-suited to the challenging terrain and weather conditions of the region: they can be ridden in a dense taiga forest and in deep snow-covered areas. Milk is used mostly for ‘kumys’—a traditional fermented beverage. Both kumys and meat contain vital nutrients such as essential vitamins, amino acids, and fats and fatty acids, including polyunsaturated ones [53]. The hair is used within a cultural context as part of rituals and ceremonies.

A petroglyphic drawing of a horseman is featured in the coat of arms of the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia). This emblem underscores that, beyond their economic and everyday roles, horses occupy a significant position in the cultural life of the Sakha people. Dzhehegey Aiyy (Sakha: Дьөһөгөй Айыы), one of the deities in the belief of the Sakha people, is symbolically represented in the form of a horse, and the Sakha horses are regarded as terrestrial manifestations of this divine entity. Dzhehegey Aiyy is the patron god of horses and humans, bestowing upon them material prosperity, a thriving household, physical strength, and valuable skills. However, should he become displeased, he can withdraw all that he has bestowed, hence earning the alternate epithet “Uordaakh Dzhehegey” (Engl: “Dzhehegey the Formidable/Severe”). The Sakha people refer to themselves as “Kyun Dzhehegey ogholoro”, signifying their self-identification as the Children of the Solar Horse Deity [54].

From an economic perspective, traditional horse herding is mainly held by three types of farming—(1) private farmholding, which involves farming as the personal labor of an individual and their family to meet their own personal needs; (2) peasant household farming units, when people related by kinship and/or property unite to carry out farming activities, also relying on their personal involvement; and (3) “agricultural organizations”, which encompass various entities such as societies, production cooperatives, business partnerships, unitary enterprises, subsidiary plots of non-agricultural organizations, and tribal communities.

Table 2. Structure of livestock in the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) by farm category, 2024 (% of farms of all categories) [55].

Livestock	Private Farmholdings	Peasant Household Farming Units	Agricultural Organizations
Cattle	59.4	26.7	13.9
Horses	38.0	42.7	19.3
Reindeer	1.2	3.6	95.2
Poultry	5.3	1.6	93.1
Hogs	23.0	9.9	67.1

shows the structure of livestock by farm category in 2022, and

Table 3. Number of livestock in the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) in farms of all categories, 2024 (at the beginning of the year; thousand) [55].

Year	Cattle	Horses	Reindeer	Hogs
2000	284.5	127.6	165.1	33.4
2001	289.7	129.5	156.2	51.3
2002	291.7	131.3	141.5	59.5
2003	298.7	130.8	133.1	44.4
2004	301.3	136.3	138.9	42.8
2005	285.7	130.9	144.5	37.1
2006	268.1	130.2	153.7	34.3
2007	253.2	129.4	168.9	27.8
2008	247.6	134.2	181.7	27.6
2009	248.8	150.4	190.1	27.5
2010	246.8	159.8	200.1	29.4
2011	233.7	163.6	200.3	30.0
2012	233.3	170.8	194.9	27.4
2013	215.1	169.7	191.1	27.2
2014	199.2	167.6	177.1	27.8
2015	190.9	171.5	165.3	24.4
2016	187.2	176.6	156.0	23.8
2017	186.6	181.5	156.8	23.1
2018	188.0	184.2	154.6	23.4
2019	183.5	178.0	146.6	22.4
2020	183.3	183.0	152.1	21.6
2021	180.9	182.8	157.4	21.6
2022	178.2	182.6	163.4	18.3
2023	170.4	181.1	168.5	17.8
2024	159.0	178.9	171.6	15.0

presents the number of livestock [55].

3. Materials and Methods

3.1. The Study Area

The study area encompasses Central Yakutia, the most densely populated region in the Republic that has the highest number of horses. This study was conducted in four municipal settlements (Figure 5):

• Arylakh, Churapchinsky uluus;
• Tuora-Kel, Tattinsky uluus;
• Ytyk-Kel, Tattinsky uluus;
• Djekken, Vilyuisky uluus.

The study area is characterized by the alaas ecosystem. It is also one of the regions most vulnerable to permafrost thaw. According to the permafrost characteristics map [56], these uluuses are one of the most ice-rich regions in the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia).

3.2. Data Collection

This work is based on in-depth semi-structured interviews conducted by the author in 2021 with 15 horse breeders who had been engaged in this practice from 16 to 50 years. The snowball method [57] was used as a recruitment technique. This method relies on initial participants to refer and recruit more participants for a study, resulting in a gradual increase in the number of participants, much like a snowball growing. This approach is often employed when researching hard-to-reach populations. All participants permanently have been living on their ancestral lands. Participation eligibility was restricted to middle-aged and older individuals. Selection of this age group for participation was based on the idea that they could provide more information about climate change and its effects on traditional activities through substantial personal experiences and observations. The average number of horses for each participant was 47, and the number of herds 4–5, respectively. Horse breeders also typically extend their care to horses owned by their relatives, friends, or at the request of village residents. These horses are also included in the total count. The primary subsistence activity of each participant was horse breeding. However, two individuals were concurrently engaged in wage employment within their villages while also continuing to practice horse breeding.

3.3. Interviews

The interviews were conducted employing a semi-structured interview guide, where interlocutors were asked open-ended questions. Informed oral consent was obtained from participants. The interviews varied in duration, lasting from 45 to 100 min. The interview questions constituted a progression across five conceptual domains, including background (e.g., How long have you been engaged in traditional herding? How many herds/horses do you hold?), their livelihood activities (e.g., Beyond horse breeding, what other activities do you engage in?), their observations of the environment (e.g., Do you observe any changes in the environment where you live?), effects of changes, if they confirmed any (e.g., How is it manifested? How are these changes affecting the environment? How are these changes affecting horse herding?), and adaptations (What do you do to adapt these changes? In your opinion, how are traditional activities adapting along with these changes? What possible solutions do you envision for this change? How do you envision a future of traditional husbandry in your community/area?).

3.4. Analysis

The interviews were conducted in the Sakha language, transcribed into Sakha, and subsequently translated into English by the author. The interviews were analyzed using thematic analysis designed to identify, analyze, and interpret themes, primarily through the process of coding and constant comparison [58].

4. Results

The interview data and subsequent analysis showed a unanimous consensus among horse breeders, where they marked the intricate and interrelated character of changes taking place in their areas. Horse herders approach the understanding of climate change through a comprehensive perspective that encompasses a multitude of contributing factors. Their viewpoint consistently accentuates the sophisticated interplay among these alterations, refraining from facile reduction into a single thematic construct. Therefore, the analysis adhered to this principle. Results show the following eight main changes based on participants’ observations: (1) change of seasonal transitions—early onset of spring and late onset of winter; (2) warmer winters; (3) more water in alaases; (4) unexpected temperature changes, particularly during the autumn-winter transition and spring; (5) an increased number of rain-on-snow events; (6) a change of landscape; (7) new species of birds, animals, and insects; and (8) an increased number of wildfires. Thematic categories based on the interview analysis are summarized below, with examples of the citations of the respondents.

4.1. Seasonal Shift

The interviewed herders collectively observe a significant shift in seasonal patterns over the past few decades. They note a consistent trend of an earlier onset of spring, later arrival of autumn and winter, and brief periods of warmth lasting from a few hours to a few days. Frost comes later, with the first stable snow cover in mid-October to the beginning of November, instead of the end of September. Respondent 8 remarked: “Earlier, winter snow usually fell approximately on 27 September, on an Isiyeennep day. The bear enters the den, that is, in general, the last days of autumn. Stable winter snow fell usually near 14 October, and we were preparing for this. These dates are close to each other. Lately there has been no winter snow falling in October”. The most significant change is an early spring onset, which begins in March, a month earlier than before. Snowstorms normally occurring in March serve as indicators of the upcoming summer’s character: more snow suggests a wet and fertile summer and vice versa. This is a critical period in terms of herd management, and predictability of the timing of snowstorms is essential because, during snowstorms, horse breeders corral their horses to minimize potential losses. This precaution is crucial, as a horse that falls during a snowstorm may be unable to get up and could die within hours. In recent years, the timing of these snowstorms decreased and has become less predictable, occurring either earlier or much later than usual. This unpredictability makes it more challenging to take advance measures to corral horses. The changing pattern leads either to a need for supplementary feed for a longer period, the reserves of which by spring could already be depleted, or to an increased risk of horse losses. Herders have expressed concern that, in recent years, such unpredictability has in most cases led to an increase in horse mortality cases. In addition to these, snow completely melts at the end of April, and rivers and lakes melt by the end of May, not by June. These observations show a discernible change in climate pattern. As noted by Respondent 10: “The most significant change is that in the last 10 years, spring arrives earlier. And it is quite noticeable. The autumn season sets in later, and the frosts come later, somewhere around more than 10 years already. Now, starting from 24-26-27 May, the rivers are already freezing. Previously, lakes melted in June. Now, at the end of May, on the 27th–28th, they completely melt”.

4.2. Warming Trends

There is a trend of increasing temperatures and a decrease in the extremely cold days in December and January. Participants note that, in the past, prolonged periods of extremely low temperatures were common, whereas currently, extreme frosts with temperatures below −50 °C last briefly: “In the past, the severe cold spells used to last for a very long time, that is for sure. For example, if we compare it to now, the winter frosts are not too cold. Temperatures as low as −50 °С degrees only last for a few days”, —Respondent 2. In addition, herders mention the delayed onset of autumn, providing a broader context for the changing climate conditions and emphasizing a shift towards milder and shorter periods of extreme cold. Herders see also beneficial aspects to a short and warm winter period, as it means there are fewer challenges related to providing supplementary food and monitoring of herds due to an extended snow-free grazing season. Respondent 14 remarked: “In fact, if it gets warmer, it’s good for us, horse breeders, because the snow-free pasture season will be prolonged. If erteehun (controlled burn) were allowed, horses would easily overwinter without additional feeding”. However, warmer temperatures in autumn delay the timing of annual slaughter, which typically occurs when temperatures remain below −20 °C.

4.3. Extreme Weather Conditions and Their Impact on Horses

This analysis has revealed a recurring theme of extreme weather conditions, particularly the unexpected and sudden increases in temperatures and precipitation during periods after frost has already set in (October and November). All herders noted an increase in the frequency of events such as rain-on-snow, melt-of-snow, and wet snow. This phenomenon results in the formation of ice crust, depriving horses of access to food by making it difficult or impossible for them to dig through ice. Respondent 6 described this rain-on-snow phenomenon: “When frost has already set in, there is a sudden, significant warming, and heavy rains fall. Then, 1–2 days later, the clouds disperse and negative temperatures return. And there is water on the grass, right? It freezes, turning into ice, making it difficult for horses to graze. Also the grass beneath the ice rots, and many horses become emaciate. In fact, such a year is known in advance as horses begin to get emaciated well beforehand”. Respondent 9 described the event of melt-of-snow: “Another change is that when the first snow falls, it consistently melts. This also has a significant impact on horses. That is, when the snow falls and covers the ground, it melts before the frost sets in. Then, it freezes and the moist ground turns into ice. Horses cannot dig food through the ice. Usually, the lower layer of snow is loose and coarse-grained. But in this case, the snow is as hard as stone. That’s why horses cannot dig through it. This year, ice remained all year round. Also, during this time when the snow melts, some bacteria appear in the grass. That’s why this year there were a lot of miscarriages and deaths”. These events pose challenges to horse breeders and negatively affect the condition of horses—causing hoof injuries, emaciation, mass miscarriages, and mortality. Starvation can occur quickly and drag on for many months or even longer. In addition, these conditions cause the grass under the ice crust and snow to oxidize and rot, which also leads to poisoning, miscarriages, and loss of livestock. A similar effect occurs when snow falls early, before the ground has completely frozen and while it is still warm. The grass gets covered with snow, and since it is situated between the warm ground and the cold snow layers, it oxidizes without insulating. Respondent 1 explained: “Because snow falls on wet grass, the grass beneath rots, to be precise, it ferments, oxidizes. If a horse eats such grass, something happens in its body. The grass acts like a gradual poison. They say that hydrocyanic acid is produced. In reality, ideal and usual scenario are when the ground freezes, and the snow falls when the grass is dry”. One respondent mentioned the production of hydrocyanic acid in the grass following this event. The onset of freeze-up season and the timing of the autumn-to-winter transition play a critical role in effective herd management. However, unusual weather events within an ecosystem with an established historical pattern affect the health of horses, and the new order requires prompt responses and a heightened level of preparation for unforeseen scenarios.

4.4. Water Cycle Change—Dry and Wet Years

Respondents note earlier melting of lakes and rivers, thinning ice on lakes, and irregular precipitation patterns, characterized by a lack of rain in summer and autumn, as well as untimely snowstorms in spring. There has been a transition from wet and fertile periods of summer to more recent periods of dry year. The observed changes are attributed to the existing natural cycle, characterized by alternating wet and dry years, constituting a fundamental aspect of ecosystem dynamics. Therefore, horse breeders were already aware that such a period would occur, and it has been ongoing for almost a decade. Respondent 2 remarked: “The wet period alternates with the dry period. Before there were wet years, which have persisted for approximately 10 years now. Recently, dry years have begun—a dry period. Just a few years—two years ago”. Drought conditions have led to challenges in grass growth, particularly the grass that grows after haymaking—kencheeri. This poses a significant problem for livestock, especially horses. Drought and insufficient rainfall affect pastures, leading to a potential decrease in the number of livestock and farms. Paradoxically, despite the dry summer seasons, water still accumulates in alaases and lakes become fuller. Participants associate changes in the water level with factors such as permafrost thaw, forest fires, and deforestation due to the spread of silkworms in Yakutia several decades ago. The absence of forest cover contributes to changes in water flow, which flows down to the lakes of the lower-lying alaas. For example, Respondent 10 mentioned: “The lakes in alaases almost never dry out, they even have become fuller, the number of lakes is increasing more and more. The land around is very soft and watery. A lot of water flows from the forest because there is no forest due to fires. Fire also contributes to the thawing of permafrost. The forests were also destroyed by silkworms”.

The combined impact of these changes poses challenges to the livelihoods of respondents as the available pastureland diminishes due to both the absence of grass growth and water accumulation. Respondents express concerns about the destructive impact of drought, particularly for residents in the central uluuses with small pastures. Potential consequences include a decrease in the number of livestock, farm losses, and the need for additional feed for horses. However, as noted by Respondent 9, nearby villages located near the river do not face significant problems with grass growth during droughts, unlike villages situated in alaas. This observation could serve as a basis for future research, with a clear division of villages based on landscape types.

4.5. Permafrost and Land Degradation

There is a common thread related to the observed effects of permafrost degradation and its subsequent effects on the overall landscape composition. Participants highlight the processes of thawing and degradation of permafrost occurring underground. In the alaases, lenses of permafrost are visible and undergo thawing. Permafrost thaw is also influenced by forest fires, contributing to an increase in moisture levels in autumn. This leads to the formation of lakes, resulting in a reduction of pastures as water occupies the alaas, making it difficult or impossible to mow. In certain areas, the active layer of permafrost hardly freezes completely by spring. Even during droughts, the soil remains wet, indicating a transformation in the environmental dynamics of the region, affecting both topography and water characteristics. Horse breeders have noted visible changes in the landscape, including land faults, elevated hills, steep riverbanks, and a loss of pastures due to waterlogged land and fuller lakes. Respondent 4 emphasized the transformation of the landscape due to the thawing of permafrost: “The most vivid example is the noticeable thawing of lenses in the alaas. In the alaas, there is a lot of water, and the land has become moist; you can see the permafrost lens”. The new humid conditions and land degradation hinder hunting and gathering because it becomes more difficult to reach hunting and gathering grounds. Where hunters could previously reach easily by car, or gatherers on foot, it now becomes problematic. Furthermore, a reduction in winter grazing is observed, highlighting a contrast with a time when minimal care was needed for horses. As noted by Respondent 3: “Winter grazing has certainly become scarcer. In the past, horses were hardly fed. In a good year, they could manage without any additional care at all”.

4.6. Wildfires and Ban on Controlled Burn—Lack of Winter Grazing and More Parasites

Horse breeders link the loss of pastures, their diminished quality, and an increase in forest fires to the prohibition of controlled burn. Since summers tend to be very dry, the previous year’s grass quickly ignites, and it becomes challenging to contain the fires. Insufficient rainfall further hinders the growth of new grass, and the existing forage from the previous year lacks nutritional quality after winter. Reduced nutritional value negatively affects the health and productivity of horses. The traditional practice of controlled burns by elders is acknowledged as a historical approach that stimulates natural vegetation regeneration and also helps prevent uncontrolled forest fires.

Respondents also marked the broader impact of forest fires. Herders’ responses demonstrate the dual nature of perceptions of fires, acknowledging both positive and negative impacts. On the other hand, forest fires contribute to the melting of permafrost, land degradation, increased water in the alaas, and reduction of pastures. At the same time, new grass is growing in the burnt forest, as horses have been grazing in the forest in winter in recent years. In addition, fires can contribute to an increase in the population of wild animals, such as hares. Herders stress that controlled burns are vital for the growth of new grass and crucial for sustaining horses during winter, as commented by Respondent 14: “Controlled burn is now prohibited. It is horrible. Controlled burns are a must. Because after burn, new grass grows. This is very good for horses and livestock, as there is more grass for winter grazing. But now we are not allowed to conduct controlled burn at all. In addition, last year’s grass catches fire very quickly, like a fuel. That is why it is now very difficult to stop the fire that has arisen. Previously, the elders used to conduct controlled burns regularly”. Moreover, these restrictions have led to an increase in the variety of parasites in the grass, affecting the quality of livestock nutrition. Infections in horses and cows were observed by Respondent 2, who works as a veterinarian: “Kencheeri does not grow due to the lack of controlled burns. In the past, old people burned at their own discretion. Since controlled burns are not carried out, cows and horses have more parasites. Livestock eats parasites along with grass. This is due to the fact that last year’s grass is not burned. Since last year’s grass is not burned, the number and variety of parasites affecting cows and horses are increasing. The injections for parasites remain the same. Parasites mutate and become resistant to medications. This is why horses are becoming emaciated as a result. If controlled burns were allowed, then the horses would easily overwinter without supplementary feeding”.

Overall, the herders see controlled burns as a crucial tool for stimulating natural vegetation growth, maintaining grass quality, preserving land health, reducing the spread of infection, and ultimately benefiting the horses’ well-being. They unanimously underscored the significance of understanding the relationship between forest fires and controlled burns. There is recognition of the traditional practice of elders who used controlled burns. Intentional burning of vegetation under controlled conditions during periods of low fire risk allows for the reduction of accumulated easily ignitable materials, such as dead grass and fallen leaves. Furthermore, controlled burns help to minimize the spread of insect pest and disease, recycle nutrients back to the soil, increase plant diversity and water availability, control invasive plant species, and more [59]. Robertson et al. [60] point out that effective forest management with controlled burn can significantly reduce emissions from forest fires. This highlights the importance of revising current policies.

Since 2015, the burn of dry vegetation, stubble remains, and crop residues on agricultural and reserve lands, as well as the initiation of fires in fields, has been prohibited in all Russian regions [61]. According to horse herders, this legislation should be revisited, suggesting the possibility of introducing exemptions considering the vast areas and cold environmental conditions of northern regions. They also link the increased number of forest fires with this new law. This factor is also likely to be an important determinant for the future trends of forest fires in Siberia, in combination with the effects of global climate change. Several studies show that wildfires in the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) indeed increased sharply starting from 2016 [5], and particle pollution from Siberian forest fires increased in 2016–2021, up to 5.4 Mt yr⁻¹, with major losses in the Yakutia [62]. Although controlled burn may be one of the reasons for major forest fires among others (dry thunderstorms and various anthropogenic factors), little is known about the traditional burns conducted by Indigenous peoples of the Arctic. Moreover, questions regarding the causes of wildfires in Arctic Russia are still being discussed [63]. Having an increase in wildfires can be expected given that extreme heat events are becoming more frequent in the northern region [64] and are leading to meteorological conditions conducive to wildfires due to increased thunderstorm activity and dry conditions [62]. Therefore, it is reasonable to direct attention to traditional land burn practices.

4.7. Changes in Wildlife

The respondents’ reports show transformations in the local ecosystem and wildlife. Herders note changes in bird and animal populations, observing the displacement of indigenous birds by southern species. The appearance of black birds—rooks and starlings—is particularly noted, suggesting changes in the nature of migration or environmental conditions in different regions. As noted by Respondent 5: “More birds that we don’t recognize have started to appear. For instance, rooks. They fly in colonies, chase our crows, and beat them. Therefore, our crows have seen a lot of suffering. The crows are now building nests deep in the forest, whereas they used to build them around and near the villages. These rooks don’t even fly back to the south; it seems tough for them there, so they decide to stay. I think that conditions have become harsher in the south. That’s why they decide to stay. The Amur tigers will probably arrive soon”. There are fewer duck species, but the number of ducks has increased. The new birds, such as lapwings and storks, prey upon the eggs of local birds.

The community of Sakha locals engages in berry and herb harvesting throughout the summer, making provisions for the winter by freezing them. However, newly arrived birds are extensively consuming the berries of shrubs, such as red and black currants, leaving no remnants behind. Insects are increasing in number, and new types of insects, such as ticks, are observed. For example, an observation shared by three respondents highlights an unprecedented occurrence of spiders seemingly falling from the sky, underscoring the dynamic shifts in insect populations: “When I cover long distances on horseback, I find some snow surface is completely black. When I approach, it turns out to be spiders. In general, it seems that there are a lot of insects in the atmosphere. And suddenly, at one moment, they fall to the surface. I consistently observe this, there was nothing like this before”, —Respondent 9.

The absence of hares is a constant theme, and there are assumptions that their scarcity of food and the increase in predators are impacting their population. According to the herders, human non-intervention resulting from hunting restrictions contributes to an increase in the predator population, leading to a cascading effect on the entire ecosystem. The impact of hunting restrictions is also reported by six respondents, leading to a surge in predators attacking domestic animals due to a scarcity of prey. Respondent 13 explained: “Recently, in a village of Amma uluus, a starving wolf caught a whole herd of horses. Wolves also need to eat, but there is nothing for them to eat. There are no deer or other prey; either they migrated elsewhere or disappeared. That is why they attack semi-domestic animals. Therefore, here is such a cycle. They also somehow have to survive, and they also see that there is no one on the territory. On one hand, the Ministry of Ecology prohibits hunting and imposes fines. So, there is no hunting. Step by step, their numbers increase. Recently, the law has leaned too heavily towards only restrictions and limitations. And the demand for the law has become too great. Therefore, such cases will become even more common. But if we do not hunt them, they will hunt us”.

These observations of herders show that ongoing changes in wildlife have not only impacted the traditional practices and sustenance derived from hunting and gathering but have also demonstrated that the delicate balance of the local ecosystem is undergoing significant changes. The changes in wildlife are not solely environmental but are also related to institutional shifts. The alterations are not isolated, indicating a significant shift in the environmental dynamics on a larger scale. Such changes underscore the necessity for continuous ecological monitoring. Tracking the ongoing changes over time is crucial for addressing any potential challenges that may arise.

There is an increase in the number of predatory animals, including wolves, bears, foxes, minks, sables, weasels, and ermine, as well as the appearance of new animals, such as Himalayan bears. Prey migrations have important implications for predator foraging ecology and may cause seasonal shifts in the importance of their supporting energy pathways [65].

5. Discussion

Sakha are the northernmost horse and cattle pastoralists, and climate change increases their vulnerability [66,67]. Although Sakha horses are well-adapted to their surroundings and are seen by herders as “children of nature”, they remain highly dependent on their natural habitat and are thus vulnerable to sudden climate variations. During a bad year, a herder may lose all of their herds. Despite this, half of the participants expressed the opinion that nature always tends towards equilibrium, and that it is not nature but humans who are subject to the concept of “climate change”. As with many Indigenous communities globally [68,69], they are actively engaged in adaptive strategies, drawing on their extensive traditional knowledge and adjusting their traditional practices to align with changing environmental conditions. Interviews conducted with Sakha horse herders show that they view climate-change-induced challenges as problems that can and should be addressed and mitigated; for example, through actions such as increasing physical labor and providing supplementary feed for horses.

Herders acknowledge current changes as a multifaceted interplay of multiple factors, including the influence of public policy institutions, rapid climate change, natural cycles, and institutional changes. Therefore, while some researchers may narrow their focus to specific aspects of climate change in the Arctic, this study demonstrates that Indigenous peoples take a more comprehensive approach to understanding these phenomena. To reduce the risks of overlooking certain aspects, further research aimed at addressing knowledge gaps regarding the Arctic region, particularly concerning Indigenous peoples and their practices, should encompass broad perspectives. This entails, for example, conducting comprehensive examinations of historical, cultural, and socio-economic contexts, along with understanding the worldview of Indigenous peoples, which differs from the Western perspective. The more diverse local views are listened to and properly understood, the more thorough an understanding of the consequences of climate change and the development of adaptation strategies can be attained.

Several horse herders have expressed interest in studying the impact of climate on horse breeding in the northern uluuses, particularly in the mountainous Verkhoyansk uluus. Participants noted that mountain grass called chyybaaiy is more nutritious than kencheeri grass. By consuming this grass, local horses quickly gain weight, accumulating a very thick layer of fat that helps them better overwinter. It is also known that horses there are purebred (Sakha breed) and exhibit greater resilience than horses in Central Yakutia. Herders in Central Yakutia are curious about how environmental changes, especially in winter grazing, affect the region. There is a strong possibility that horse breeding in Verkhoyansk may demonstrate greater resilience to sudden environmental shifts.

6. Adaptation Measures

The Sakha Indigenous people’s traditional subsistence practices, historically adaptable to changing environmental conditions, are now hindered by institutional regulation, constraining their capacity to effectively respond to changing conditions. Addressing challenges posed by climate change effectively requires the consideration of adaptable environmental change policy mechanisms and the enhancement of adaptive management strategies to mitigate the exacerbating impacts of climate change. Based on the results of this study, the following recommendations to policy- and decision-makers have been made:

• Controlled burns. Reinstate controlled burns as previously practiced. In the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia), traditional pasture burning was conducted while snow was still present. Controlled burn helps mitigate the risk of larger, more destructive wildfires by reducing the available fuel. It stimulates the regeneration of natural vegetation and prevents scarcity of grazing pastures for horses. Controlled burn ensures the health of pastures, minimizing the spread of parasites and disease, recycling nutrients back to the soil, and supporting the overall well-being of the ecosystem and the animals that depend on it.
• Align the hunting season with new seasonal changes, appearance of new wildlife species, and increased number of predators. The hunting season and restrictions should be adjusted with the changing natural patterns, as well as with the behaviors of predators in view of their increased number and threat not only to domestic animals but also people.
• Community collaboration. Encourage collaboration among herders, authorities, and environmental organizations to collectively address the challenges. Sharing knowledge and resources can lead to more effective solutions.
• Monitoring and adaptation together with horse herders. Implement a monitoring system to track natural changes and adapt herding practices accordingly. Observing nature closely allows for better preparation and mitigates risks associated with sudden environmental shifts.
• Climate resilience planning. Develop strategies for climate resilience in horse herding practices. This includes preparing for extreme weather events such as snowstorms and droughts and finding in advance a supplementary feed source during challenging years. In addition, a close connection between horses and nature should be considered, and a balance should be struck between allowing natural adaptation and providing necessary support to ensure the survival of both the horses and the herders’ way of life.
• Cooperation with herders from other uluuses. Learning from other uluuses (districts) in the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia)—for example, with horse herders in northern regions, such as Verkhoyansk and Kolyma, and eastern regions, such as Oymiakon and Viluiy—to share knowledge and best practices.

7. Conclusions

Horse herders of the Central Yakutia view current changes through the lens of complex interrelations. They are growing more concerned about the state of their practices in rapidly changing environments. Herders are finding it challenging to predict the shifts that nature will bring in the coming year, yet they do not admit an inability to address emerging issues. The collective perspectives of horse breeders reflect a combination of both positive and negative expectations regarding the implications of climate change on traditional horse herding practices. While acknowledging the negative consequences of warmer temperatures, they also recognize their potential advantages. Warmer temperatures are beneficial because they prolong the snow-free pasture season, which requires less oversight and reduces the need for supplemental hay in winter. However, warmer temperatures in autumn delay the timing of annual slaughter. Negative consequences are the severe deterioration of winter pastures due to rain-on-snow events followed by freezing, which forms an ice layer and causes difficulties in winter grazing. Deterioration and loss of summer pastures occur due to an expansion of lakes and swamping of alaas caused by permafrost thawing. Hunting routes and gathering sites are disrupted due to land degradation and soil moisture resulting from permafrost thaw.

It must be noted that herders identify and distinguish the causes of changes. In particular, they acknowledge three main factors: climate change, natural cycles, and the influence of public policy institutions.

First, herders have a high level of awareness about climate change’s role as a catalyst for environmental transformations, such as warming, seasonal shifts, extreme precipitation, alterations in the water cycle, permafrost thaw, and changes in wildlife.

Second, horse herders recognize the cyclical nature of the environment. For example, the current dry summers are seen as a regular occurrence within the natural climate variability and not viewed as abnormal or solely attributable to rapid climate change but rather as part of a recurring cycle. This cyclicity fits within a broader pattern and is not necessarily indicative of a significant shift in the climate system beyond what has been historically observed. Horse breeders are accustomed to navigating these processes. In contrast, uncommon and unexpected variations caused by rapid climate change, characterized by, e.g., rain-on-snow events or untimely snowstorms, create significant challenges and lead to increased rates of death of horses. Additional to this, the most noticeable changes are seasonal shifts (earlier springs, later winters), thawing permafrost, increased water level in alaases, early opening and later freezing of the lakes and rivers, and extreme changes of weather patterns during season transitioning. The appearance of new species of wildlife has a profound impact on its ecological balance, leading to disruptions in what is known as ecological homeostasis or the existing natural equilibrium within the ecosystem. Alien southern species of insects, birds, and animals appear in Central Yakutia and displace local species, leading to a reduction and/or migration of local populations. This presents challenges for hunting and endangers gathering practices. Nevertheless, despite these challenges, horse breeders perceive the impacts of climate change as manageable; they attribute these changes to a disruption in the balance within the broader context of global changes. Horse breeders associate changes not only within their local area but also regions such as southern areas of Eastern Siberia, including Amur oblast, Khabarovsky, and Primorsky Krai, as well as globally.

Third, climate change has led to a greater need for supplementary feed due to the limited availability of grazing areas. Furthermore, challenges arise in stocking up on supplementary feed due to various factors, including but not limited to drought occurrences, rising water levels, and an insufficiency of summer hay resources. Herders have to adapt to the changes through increased physical labor and financial costs to stock up on additional horse feed. Supplying supplementary food for horses, increasing human supervision, and adapting hunting practices, such as implementing flexible hunting seasons to align with changing seasons and granting locals more leeway to hunt predators, can help alleviate the impacts of climate change. However, in reality, the situation is more complex. Horse breeders posit that the primary factor exacerbating the shortage of pastures is the legal prohibition of controlled burns. All participants unanimously agree on the significant and negative impact of the absence of controlled burn on traditional activities. According to herders, the restriction of such burns is one of the main reasons for insufficient forage, its reduced quality, the emergence of new parasites in the grass, and an increase in wildfires. Furthermore, legal restriction on hunting predators also has adverse consequences. As a result, the number and variety of predators migrating from the burned forests increase. They primarily attack horses and cattle, while also raising the risk to human life during gathering.

Taken together, these restrictions limit the ability of Indigenous Sakha communities to fully adapt and cope with climate change impacts, intensifying the difficulties they encounter in continuation of their Indigenous practices.