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Article

Comparative Analysis of Rice Yield and Economic Performance Across Different Planting Patterns in Double-Cropping Rice Systems Under Global Warming

by
Qianxing Su
1,
Jinyao Wang
2,
Weisheng Lv
3,
Ming Chen
3,
Wen Xiong
3,
Le Chen
1 and
Yongjun Zeng
1,*
1
Ministry of Education and Jiangxi Key Laboratory of Crop Physiology, Ecology and Genetic Breeding, Jiangxi Agricultural University, Nanchang 330045, China
2
College of Ceramic Art and Design, Jingdezhen University, Jingdezhen 333400, China
3
Jiangxi Red Soil and Germplasm Resources Institute, Nanchang 331717, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Plants 2025, 14(23), 3593; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14233593
Submission received: 2 October 2025 / Revised: 10 November 2025 / Accepted: 21 November 2025 / Published: 25 November 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Crop Physiology and Crop Production)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

Under global warming, the differences in yield, soil nutrients, and economic benefits between various planting patterns in double-cropping rice areas were compared, and the high-yield and high-efficiency planting patterns that can adapt to climate change were selected. Four planting patterns, namely rape–rice (RaR), fallow–rice (FR), Chinese milk vetch–early rice–late rice (CRR), and fallow–early rice–late rice (FRR), were investigated. Compared with FRR, the yield of early rice increased by 13.6% using the CRR rotation. CRR could increase the spikelet per panicle of early rice, thereby enhancing rice yield. The soil’s available nitrogen content demonstrated an increase under the CRR rotation when compared with FRR. The yield under RaR increased by 11.9% on average compared with FR. The RaR rotation enhanced panicles per ha, thereby increasing rice yield. RaR could increase the soil’s available nutrient content compared with FR. Compared with CRR, FRR, and FR, the net income of RaR was higher by 1031 CNY/ha, 2046 CNY/ha and 5762 CNY/ha, respectively. Comprehensively compared with the other three planting patterns, RaR could effectively improve the soil fertility of paddy fields, grain yield, and net income. RaR is a sustainable planting pattern with a high yield and high efficiency worth popularizing. In addition, under the warming climate, the growth period and sowing date of rice of RaR and FR should be appropriately extended and postponed to avoid encountering more frequent high-temperature weather.

1. Introduction

Rice (Oryza sativa) is a staple food in China, and rice accounts for 33.8% of the Chinese grain area [1]. The double-cropping of rice is an important agricultural planting pattern that fully utilizes local temperature and light resources and improves land utilization rate and grain output in southern China. The cultivation of double-cropped rice has provided an important contribution to increasing grain production and ensuring food security [2]. However, against the background of global climate warming [3], the risks faced by agricultural production are increasing continuously. Global warming significantly impacts crop production and poses a serious threat to food security due to increasing temperatures, irregular rainfall regimes, extreme weather events, insufficient winter chilling, and water scarcity [4,5,6]. Moreover, climate change is a possible factor impacting the geospatial and temporal changes in the actual rice-cropping area in China [7]. As an important region for ensuring food security in China, the adaptable adjustment of planting patterns in double-cropping rice areas is crucial for stabilizing grain yield and ensuring food security.
Global warming has significantly changed the climatic conditions within the double-cropped rice growing season by, for example, raising the average temperature during the growth period, accelerating the growth process of rice, and shortening the reproductive period [8], which has an effect on the potential productivity, yield, and quality of rice [9,10,11]. Zhang et al. [12] found that global warming significantly reduced the yield of early rice and late rice. Meanwhile, the safe production dates of double-cropped rice also change due to climate change. Lü et al. [13] found that the daily mean temperature increased significantly, accumulated temperature increased remarkably, and sunshine hours changed slightly during the safe production phases. Ai et al. [14] also proposed that the obvious advance of the safe sowing dates and the safe transplanting dates of early rice in the watered nursery facilitates early sowing, increasing yield potential except the rest of safe production dates.
Global warming has also led to the expansion of potential double-cropped areas [15], which is beneficial for increasing the annual crop yield per unit area. However, the single-cropped system fails to fully utilize the temperature and light resources throughout the year, thus reducing the land utilization rate. Compared with the single-cropped rice system, the double-cropped rice system increases the yield of an additional rice-cropping season and the utilization of temperature and light resources, but it may give rise to soil acidification, soil degradation, and a decline in soil fertility. Both of the above two models are in winter fallow, which not only wastes valuable light and heat resources but also accelerates soil erosion due to soil exposure, resulting in the depletion of organic matter and essential nutrients [16]. However, the utilization of winter cover crops not only enhances rice yields but also plays a role in soil carbon sequestration, thereby supporting sustainable rice farming and mitigating soil degradation. Chinese milk vetch is a widely cultivated leguminous green manure in southern China. It makes a significant contribution to improving soil fertility and productivity [17,18], enhancing soil health, replacing chemical fertilizers [19]. The previous research also indicated that for double-rice cropping areas, it is recommended to use Chinese milk vetch with 80% chemical fertilizer to enhance rice yield, crop nutrient uptake, and the utilization efficiency of N, P, and K fertilizers [20]. The rice–rape rotation is a high-yield, high-efficiency, environmentally friendly agricultural rotation planting system [21]. These possess advantages such as high annual yield per unit land area, high land use efficiency, high light and temperature utilization rates, and significant economic benefits. Moreover, they are of great significance for ensuring the secure production of food and edible oil in China within limited land resources. But the spatial variability of climate may bring uncertainties in terms of scaling up site-specific field management strategies to the regional level. The irrigation requirements [22], planting dates [23], crop varieties [24], insect pests [25,26], etc., which considerably influence crop yield, should be considered, during the selection of planting patterns. Meanwhile, Yang et al. [27] also Indicated that the average daily temperature and effective accumulated temperature were the most significant climate factors affecting yield, and proposed that mechanical direct seeding under vegetable–rice rotation pattern and mechanical transplanting under rape–rice or wheat–rice were the rice planting methods that optimized the climate resources. To address the impacts brought by global climate warming, Mohapatra et al. [28] conducted a climate smartness assessment of different cropping patterns in most areas of planting rice under global warming, and proposed that incorporating legumes and oil seed crops such as sunflower would substantially increase the climate smartness compared to rice mono-cropping. Moreover, in China, previous research mainly concentrated on the carbon footprint and greenhouse gas emissions of various planting patterns [29,30]. There have been limited studies on the climate adaptability, yield, and economic benefits of different cropping patterns under global warming. Thus, we put forward the hypothesis that the rape–rice or rice–rice–green manure cropping patterns may be more suitable for the current environment.
This research discovered that, in comparison with 2021, the extreme high temperatures in 2022 had a severe impact on rice production. Regarding issues such as extremely high temperatures resulting from global warming and the decline in the annual productivity of paddy fields, the differences in yield, soil nutrient and economic benefits among various planting patterns in double-cropping rice area were compared, and the high-yield and high-efficiency planting patterns that can adapt to climate change were selected, which was of great significance for ensuring stable grain yield in the double-cropping rice area and promoting sustainable agricultural development.

2. Results

2.1. The Effect of Different Planting Patterns on Rice Yield and Annual Grain Yield

2.1.1. Yield and Its Composition

Compared with FRR, the yield of early rice of CRR increased by 13.6% in 2022 (Table 1), while it was not significant in 2021. Compared to FRR, CRR had no significant impact on the composition of early rice yield in 2021. However, in 2022, the number of grains per panicle increased by 11.58%. Regarding late rice, CRR had no significant effect on the yield and yield components compared to FRR. In contrast, compared to FR, RaR led to an increase in rice yield by 13.5% and 10.3% in 2021 and 2022, respectively. The total panicle number per hectare increased, yet the effect was not significant. Unlike in 2021, the heading period of both mid-season rice and late rice was affected by extreme high temperatures , resulting in a significant decline in the grain setting rate.

2.1.2. Annual Grain Yield

In terms of the annual grain yield for past two years, CRR > FRR > RaR > FR (Figure 1). In 2021, the total grain yield of CRR reached 14.56 t/ha, which was 23.39% higher than that of RaR and 63.60% higher than that of FR, respectively. Compared with FR, RaR led to a 29.61% increase in grain yield. In 2022, the total yield of CRR was 13.92 t/ha, which was 8.16%, 18.67%, and 54.03% higher than that of FRR, RaR, and FR, respectively. Compared with FR, RaR also increased the grain yield by 29.61%.

2.1.3. Annual Biomass

In 2021 and 2022 (Figure 2), the annual biomass of RaR was 16.80% and 55.00%, 19.46% and 47.72% higher than that of the double-cropped rice pattern and FR, respectively. In 2021 and 2022, the annual biomass of the double-cropped rice pattern was 32.71% and 23.65% higher than that of FR, respectively. There was no significant difference between CRR and FRR in the two years.

2.2. The Available Nutrient of Soil

Compared with FRR (Figure 3), the available P of CRR in the soil was not increased significantly in the past two years. In 2021, the available P of RaR in the soil was increased significantly in WH and LH, compared with FR. In 2022, compared with FR, available P of RaR in the soil was increased but had no significant effect.
The content of available K in the soil showed a decreasing trend, WH > EH > LH. Compared with FRR, the available K of CRR in the soil was not increased significantly in the past two years. In 2021, there was no significant difference in the available K of soil between RaR and FR. In 2022, compared with FR, available K of RaR in the soil was increased but had no significant effect.
In 2021, there was no significant difference in the available N of soil between CRR and FRR. In 2022, compared with FRR, available N of CRR in the soil was increased in WH but had no significant effect. Compared with FR, the available N of RaR in the soil was increased in WH but had no significant effect.

2.3. The Effect of Different Planting Patterns on Economic Benefits

In terms of the total cost of crops, artificial transplanting mid-season rice > direct-seeding mid-season rice > late rice > early rice > rape > Chinese milk vetch (Table 2). Among different planting patterns, the total annual cost in 2021 was CRR > FRR > RaR > FR. Compared with CRR and FRR, the total cost of RaR was decreased by CNY 2911/ha and CNY 1638/ha, respectively. In 2022, the total annual cost was CRR > RaR > FRR > IR. In the past two years, the cost of CRR was the highest, among which the labor cost was the highest, at CNY 11,169/ha.
In terms of output value, mid-season rice > late rice > early rice > rape. In terms of total output value, CRR (37,697 CNY/ha) > RaR (35,778 CNY/ha) > FRR (35,588 CNY/ha) > FR (22,250 CNY/ha) in 2021. The total output value of CRR was CNY 1919/ha, CNY 2109/ha and CNY 15,447/ha higher than FRR, RaR and FR, respectively. In 2022, the total output value was RaR (CNY 36,334/ha) > CRR (CNY 36,255/ha) > FRR (CNY 33,788/ha) > FR (CNY 22,625/ha). Compared with CRR, FRR and FR, the total output value of RaR was increased by CNY 79/ha, CNY 2546/ha and CNY 13,849/ha. In terms of net income for past two years: RaR > CRR > FRR > FR. In 2021 and 2022, compared with CRR, FRR and FR, the net income of RaR was increased by CNY 992/ha, CNY 1828/ha and CNY 5672/ha, CNY 1070/ha, CNY 2264/ha and CNY 5852/ha, respectively. The net income of RaR was highest.

3. Discussion

3.1. The Analysis of Different Planting Patterns on Grain Yield and Yield Formation

Crop biomass serves as the material foundation for yield formation. Within a specific range, the greater the dry matter accumulation, the higher the grain yield will be [31]. The study revealed that, in the double-cropped rice pattern, mid-season rice exhibited a higher biomass accumulation and grain yield compared to early and late rice. Nevertheless, the increase in the dry matter accumulation and dry matter production capacity of crops was primarily attributed to the extension of the growth period. Compared with a decade ago, this study selected rice varieties with a longer growth period in RaR, thus enhancing the rice yield and the annual grain yield [32]. Moreover, in comparison with the single-cropping of FR, the yield of rape was directly enhanced, and the yield and dry matter accumulation of rice were indirectly increased in RaR rotation, respectively (Table 1, Figure 1). Planting Chinese milk vetch in winter fallow farmlands also indirectly increased the yield of early rice in CRR. Compared with traditional planting methods, planting rape or leguminous green manure in winter fallow farmlands can increase the rice yield and the annual grain yield. Meanwhile, several studies have shown that the average winter temperature in China has risen over the past 60 years (1961–2020), and the diurnal temperature range has decreased [33,34], which was conducive to the growth of winter crops.
Our research indicated that, across two cropping cycles, the grain yields subsequent to growing rape and Chinese milk vetch were higher than those of rice grown after fallow. This finding was in line with previous research indicating that rape is a beneficial rotation crop for sustaining the high productivity of single-season rice [35], and growing Chinese milk vetch during the fallow season is a viable approach to maintain rice productivity in both double-cropping systems [36,37,38]. More significantly, our study indicated that planting rape can more effectively enhance productivity. The higher grain yield of rice grown after rape and Chinese milk vetch was due to improvements in both sink size and source capacity. For the sink size, planting rape and Chinese milk vetch increased panicle number of rice, and number of spikelet per panicle of early rice, respectively (Table 1). However, another study determined that growing rape increased panicle size (spikelet number per panicle) and panicle number in early rice and late rice, respectively, and growing Chinese milk vetch increased panicle number in both the early rice and late rice [39]. These findings indicated that different rice varieties and management methods had different responses to plant rape and Chinese milk vetch in winter.
In 2022, the planting method of RaR was altered from hole direct seeding to artificial transplanting, and the input of nitrogen fertilizer was increased. Nevertheless, the rice failed to achieve the expected yield. This was because the seed setting rate of the rice decreased significantly, mainly due to the extreme high temperature and drought that occurred during the flowering period (Figure 4). With global warming, extremely high temperatures would be frequent [40,41]. The seed setting rate of rice was decreased due to extreme high temperatures during the heading and flowering period, which was an important reason for the reduction in rice yield [42,43]. Therefore, the heading and flowering periods of rice should be adjusted properly. Selecting mid-season rice varieties with longer growth periods or postponing the sowing date of mid-season rice can help avoid exposure to elevated-temperature weather, thereby reducing the damage caused by extreme temperatures.
Plants 14 03593 g004
Figure 4. Average daily temperature and rainfall in the test site (October 2020–October 2022).
Figure 4. Average daily temperature and rainfall in the test site (October 2020–October 2022).
Plants 14 03593 g004

3.2. The Analysis of Different Planting Patterns on Soil Quality

Previous research also indicated that a close association existed between the rice yield and the nutrient level of the soil [44]. However, cultivating a single type of rice over the long term will deplete soil fertility. The study also indicated that maize–upland rice cultivation with burned maize residues can decrease soil organic carbon [45]. The degradation of soil fertility is not favorable for boosting crop yields and ensuring the sustainability of the land. Winter planting can improve soil fertility and increase the yield of rice [46]. Chinese milk vetch is a promising winter cover crop. It can reduce the reliance on fertilizers and boost crop productivity in southern China. During its growth as organic green manure, Chinese milk vetch can fix atmospheric N2 through the root–rhizobia symbiotic nitrogen fixation system. Once returned to the field, it releases a substantial amount of nitrogen accumulated in its tissues for rice to absorb and utilize. The abundant supply of nitrogen can promote the absorption and utilization of phosphorus and potassium by rice, thereby increasing rice yield [47]. The study also revealed that the available nitrogen content of CRR in the soil was higher than that of FRR, and it significantly enhanced the yield of early rice. Including legume cover crop in rice-based rotation system improved plant growth and development by altering soil nitrogen forms plus ameliorating soil microbial communities and antioxidant system, which alleviates oxidative damage in plants [37]. Furthermore, the combination of Chinese milk vetch and straw incorporation into the soil exerted a positive influence on soil bacterial diversity and structure, particularly on beneficial microorganisms. This contributed to the enhancement of soil biological fertility [48]. Similar to Chinese milk vetch, planting rape also improved soil fertility and increased rice yield. However, their effects on the soil differed. Previous research indicated that using rape as a preceding crop in a rotation system could significantly boost rice yield and the soil’s indigenous nutrient supply capacity [35]. The rape–rice rotation and rape–green manure–rice rotation of all increased phosphorus nutrients of red soil and promoted phosphorus availability [49,50]. The rice–rape rotations contributed to the improvement of soil quality. This was achieved by increasing the organic matter, total nitrogen content, and the activities of soil sucrase, phosphatase, urease, dehydrogenase, and cellulase. Additionally, these rotations inhibited the decline in pH, available nitrogen, and phosphorous contents [51]. Meanwhile, the recent studies indicated that the rape–rice rotation system improved soil structural stability and sustainability of soil fertility by increased soil organic carbon and sequestration of soil organic nitrogen [52,53]. The aforementioned studies indicated that cultivating Chinese milk vetch and rape in winter was a crucial rotation system for enhancing the sustainability of soil fertility.

3.3. Economic Benefit of Different Planting Patterns

Compared with FRR, although CRR led to an increase in the cost of Chinese milk vetch (1273 CNY/ha), the output value of double-cropping rice and the net income were higher than those of FRR. In the past two years, the annual net income of CRR was CNY 836/ha and CNY 1194/ha higher than that of FRR, respectively. The study suggested that the increase in net income in CRR was attributed to the increased yield of early rice. However, the increase in net income in RaR was achieved by increasing the yields of both rice and rape. Our research indicated that winter planting could enhance economic benefits. The previous study also proved that compared with the single cropping system, the double cropping system had significant advantages in annual rice yield, dry matter accumulation, total economic benefit, light and effective accumulated temperature distribution rate [54].
In 2021 and 2022, when compared with CRR, FRR, and FR, the net income of RR increased by CNY 992/ha, CNY 1828/ha, and CNY 5672/ha in 2021, and by CNY 1070/ha, CNY 2264/ha, and CNY 5852/ha in 2022, respectively. The net income of RaR was the highest. Even though the rice yield decreased under the condition of extreme high temperature in 2022, RaR still attained a relatively high income (CNY 10,444/ha). A previous study concluded that, for the purpose of maximizing economic profit while maintaining sustainable agriculture in areas of the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River that are sensitive to climate variability, the single rice system is superior to the double rice system [55]. However, our results showed that compared with FR, RaR could be superior to the double rice systems for the sake of maximizing economic profit under global warming. Zhao et al. [56] indicated that the economic income of the rape–rice pattern reached CNY 14,468/ha. This was because his experiment adopted the method of no-till broadcasting for both rape and rice, which greatly reduced labor costs and thus improved economic benefits. The recent study also suggested that the net economic return of direct seeded rice–direct seeded rape rotation system was higher than traditional transplanting rice–direct seeded rape rotation system [21]. The aforementioned studies demonstrated that the rape–rice system was a planting pattern with significant economic benefits in southern China. However, the crucial factor for increasing the economic income of the RaR system lies in optimizing the planting method without compromising crop yields and reducing labor costs.

4. Materials and Methods

4.1. Experimental Site Description

The experiment began in 2020 at the Jiangxi Red Soil and Germplasm Resources Institute (Zhanggong Town, Jinxian County, Nanchang City, Jiangxi Province, 116°10′6″ E, 28°21′31″ N). The experimental site is located in a subtropical monsoon climate zone. Compared to 2021, the rice in 2022 was suffering from high temperatures during the heading and flowering period (Figure 1). Soil samples were collected from the 0 to 20 cm soil depth. The physico-chemical properties of the soil were pH 5.27, organic matter 27.31 g/kg, total N 1.88 g/kg, available P 25.4 mg/kg, available K 119 mg/kg, and available N 150.5 mg/kg, respectively.

4.2. Experimental Materials and Design

The crop varieties were consistent for the past two years. The early rice variety was Xiangzaoxian 45, the late rice variety was Meixiangzhan 2, the mid-season rice variety was Jiafengyou 2, the rape variety was Fengyou 730, and the Chinese milk vetch was Yujiang Daye. Four planting patterns were selected: rape–rice (RaR), fallow–rice (FR), Chinese milk vetch–early rice–late rice (CRR), and fallow–early rice–late rice (FRR). The experiment was laid out as a randomized complete block design. Each treatment had three replicates and each plot was 90 m2 (15 m × 6 m). The crops were harvested, with full straw returning to the field. Chinese milk vetch seeds were manually broadcast, and then plowed back into the field during the Chinese milk vetch blooming period. The field management of different crops is shown in Table 3.

4.3. Sampling and Analysis

4.3.1. Crop Yield

At the maturity stage of rice, 200 hills from the center of each subplot were harvested for the grain yield determination. Five hills with the mean panicle number from the center of each subplot were sampled to record the different yield components. The panicle number per ha was determined by counting the panicle number per hill and multiplying it by the plant densities. The panicles were hand-threshed, air-dried, and then the structure of the panicle was examined using the water-float method [57]. At the maturity stage of rape, five hills from the center of each subplot were sampled to record the different yield components. The number of hills within 1 m2 was randomly measured three times to calculate the harvest density. The rape in the plot was both harvested and dried, then the actual yield was calculated.

4.3.2. Dry Matter Production

At the maturity stage of rice, five hills with the mean panicle number from the center of each subplot were sampled to record the biomass. The roots were cut off from the base, and the stems, leaves, and panicles were separated, wrapped in paper, and placed in a drying oven at 105 °C for half an hour, and then dried at 70 °C until constant weight, and weighed.

4.3.3. The Available Nutrient of Soil

Soil samples were collected from the 0–20 cm soil layer during the Chinese milk vetch blooming period, and after the harvest of rape, early rice, late rice and mid-season rice. Five soil samples from each plot were pooled to create a composite sample. After air-drying and sieving (0.25 mm), soil samples were stored in a Ziplock bag. The contents of available nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium in the soil samples were determined by the measurement methods described in Soil and Agricultural Chemical Analysis [58].

4.3.4. Agricultural Input Costs

The total cost included the costs of seeds, pesticides, fertilizers, labor, and machinery (Table 4). The man-hours were in raising rice seedlings and field management. Grain subsidies are not included. Net income = output value − total cost. Output value = crop yield × crop price. Grain subsidies were not included. Net income = output value − total cost. Output value = crop yield × crop price.

4.4. Statistics and Analysis

The experimental data were statistically analyzed by Microsoft Excel 2019 and SPSS 25.0 and variance tests were performed using the LSD method at p < 0.05. Graphs were produced using Origin 2018 software.

5. Conclusions

The pattern of CRR improved the content of available N and spikelet per panicle, which in turn increased the early rice yield, annual grain yield, and economic benefit. The pattern of RaR improved the content of available nutrient and panicles per ha, thereby increasing rice yield, and improved the annual grain yield, economic benefit with an increase in rape grain yield in fallow. Comprehensively compared with the other three planting patterns, RaR can effectively improve the soil fertility of the paddy field, annual grain yield and net income. RaR was a sustainable planting pattern with high yield and high efficiency worthy popularizing. Under the background of climate warming, the growth period and sowing date of rice of RaR and IR should be appropriately extended and postponed to avoid encountering more frequent high-temperature weather.

Author Contributions

Q.S.: data curation, methodology, and writing of original draft; J.W.: data curation and methodology; W.L., M.C. and W.X.: investigation, project administration, and resources; L.C.: conceptualization, writing, reviewing, and editing; Y.Z.: conceptualization, data curation, funding acquisition, project administration, writing, reviewing, and editing. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This work was supported by National Key R&D Program of China (2023YFD2301300, 2022YFD2300700), Jiangxi Province Rice Industry Technology System Special Project (JXARS-01), and Jiangxi Province National High-level Talent Innovation and Entrepreneurship Project: “Research on the Theory of Ensuring High Yield and Supporting Cultivation Techniques of Double-Cropping High-Quality Rice”.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in this study are included in the article. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Acknowledgments

We are grateful to Jiangxi Red Soil and Germplasm Resources Institute for providing the experimental site. Q.S.: data curation, methodology, and writing of original draft; J.W.: data curation and methodology; W.L., M.C. and W.X.: investigation, project administration, and resources; L.C.: conceptualization, writing, reviewing, and editing; Y.Z.: conceptualization, data curation, funding acquisition, project administration, writing, reviewing, and editing. We also sincerely thank all authors for their dedication and contributions to this manuscript.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Abbreviations

RaRrape–rice
FRfallow–rice
CRRChinese milk vetch–early rice–late rice
FRRfallow–early rice–late rice
CNYChinese Yuan

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Plants 14 03593 g001
Figure 1. Comparison of annual grain yield of different planting patterns. Note: Different lowercase letters indicate a significant difference between different treatments in the same year and the same season (p ≤ 0.05). Rape–rice (RaR), fallow–rice (FR), Chinese milk vetch–early rice–late rice (CRR), and fallow–early rice–late rice (FRR).
Figure 1. Comparison of annual grain yield of different planting patterns. Note: Different lowercase letters indicate a significant difference between different treatments in the same year and the same season (p ≤ 0.05). Rape–rice (RaR), fallow–rice (FR), Chinese milk vetch–early rice–late rice (CRR), and fallow–early rice–late rice (FRR).
Plants 14 03593 g001
Plants 14 03593 g002
Figure 2. Comparison of annual biomass of different planting patterns. Note: Different lowercase letters indicate a significant difference between different treatments in the same year and the same season (p ≤ 0.05). Rape–rice (RaR), fallow–rice (FR), Chinese milk vetch–early rice–late rice (CRR), and fallow–early rice–late rice (FRR).
Figure 2. Comparison of annual biomass of different planting patterns. Note: Different lowercase letters indicate a significant difference between different treatments in the same year and the same season (p ≤ 0.05). Rape–rice (RaR), fallow–rice (FR), Chinese milk vetch–early rice–late rice (CRR), and fallow–early rice–late rice (FRR).
Plants 14 03593 g002
Plants 14 03593 g003
Figure 3. Effects of different planting patterns on available N, P and K. Note: Different lowercase letters indicate a significant difference between different treatments in the same year and the same season (p ≤ 0.05). Rape–rice (RaR), fallow–rice (FR), Chinese milk vetch–early rice–late rice (CRR), and fallow–early rice–late rice (FRR). WH: the Chinese milk vetch blooming period and after the harvest of rape; EH: after the harvest of early rice; LH: after the harvest of late rice and rice. (a) and (b) represent the available P content in 2021 and 2022. (c) and (d) represent the available K content in 2021 and 2022. (e) and (f) represent the available N content in 2021 and 2022.
Figure 3. Effects of different planting patterns on available N, P and K. Note: Different lowercase letters indicate a significant difference between different treatments in the same year and the same season (p ≤ 0.05). Rape–rice (RaR), fallow–rice (FR), Chinese milk vetch–early rice–late rice (CRR), and fallow–early rice–late rice (FRR). WH: the Chinese milk vetch blooming period and after the harvest of rape; EH: after the harvest of early rice; LH: after the harvest of late rice and rice. (a) and (b) represent the available P content in 2021 and 2022. (c) and (d) represent the available K content in 2021 and 2022. (e) and (f) represent the available N content in 2021 and 2022.
Plants 14 03593 g003
Table 1. Effects of different planting patterns on rice yield and its composition.
Table 1. Effects of different planting patterns on rice yield and its composition.
YearSeasonTreatmentPanicles
(104/ha)		Spikelets per PanicleSeed Setting Rate
(%)		1000-Grain Weight
(g)		Yield
(t/ha)
2021Early riceCRR396 a101 a83.23 a24.80 a7.48 a
FRR404 a94 a81.89 a24.44 a6.89 a
Late riceCRR284 a151 a92.44 a20.59 a7.08 a
FRR286 a148 a88.75 a20.33 a6.81 a
Mid-season riceRaR190 a286 a83.79 a26.16 a10.10 a
FR171 a278 a84.17 a25.94 a8.90 b
2022Early riceCRR299 a106 a89.97 a25.40 a6.86 a
FRR301 a95 b89.62 a26.27 a6.04 b
Late riceCRR364 a138 a73.10 a20.39 a7.05 a
FRR358 a137 a70.77 a20.58 a6.83 a
Mid-season riceRaR263 a233 a70.98 a26.05 a9.98 a
FR251 a238 a67.51 a26.16 a9.05 b
Note: Different lowercase letters indicate a significant difference between different treatments in the same year and the same season (p ≤ 0.05). Rape–rice (RaR), fallow–rice (FR), Chinese milk vetch–early rice–late rice (CRR), and fallow–early rice–late rice (FRR).
Table 2. Effects of different planting patterns on economic benefits (Chinese Yuan (CNY)/ha).
Table 2. Effects of different planting patterns on economic benefits (Chinese Yuan (CNY)/ha).
YearTreatmentCost (Chinese Yuan)Total Income
(Chinese Yuan)		Net Income (Chinese Yuan)
SeedFertilizerPesticideLaborMachineryTotal Cost1st Season + 2nd Season
Total
2021CropsEarly rice450228612894648269911,372  
Late rice900248218596297269914,236  
Chinese milk vetch10480022501273  
rape36019192279134919497856  
rice (hole direct seeding)4048334024293598269916,114  
2022rice (transplanting)3373353624295997269918,033  
2021Planting
patterns		CRR23974768314810,945539726,88137,69710,816
FRR13504768314811,169539725,60835,6889980
RaR4408525947084948464823,97035,77811,808
FR4048334024293598269916,11422,2506136
2022CRR23974768314810,945539726,88136,2559374
FRR13504768314811,169539725,60833,7888180
RaR3733545547087346464825,89036,33410,444
FR3373353624295997269918,03322,6254592
Note: Rape–rice (RaR), fallow–rice (FR), Chinese milk vetch–early rice–late rice (CRR), and fallow–early rice–late rice (FRR).
Table 3. Field management of different crops.
Table 3. Field management of different crops.
CropSowing Date–Harvest DateTransplanting
Modes and Density		Fertilizer AmountFertilizer Methods
Early rice24 March 2021–14 July 2021Artificial transplanting
25 cm × 14 cm		N: 120 kg/hm2
P2O5: 75 kg/hm2
K2O: 120 kg/hm2		Nitrogen fertilizer was applied at the rate of basal fertilizer: tillering fertilizer: panicle fertilizer = 5:2:3, phosphorus fertilizer was both applied as basal fertilizer, and potassium fertilizer was applied at the rate of basal fertilizer: panicle fertilizer = 7:3
28 March 2022–17 July 2022
Late rice26 June 2021–14 October 2021Artificial transplanting
25 cm × 16 cm		N: 150 kg/hm2
P2O5: 75 kg/hm2
K2O: 120 kg/hm2
1 July 2022–25 October 2022
Rape19 October 2020–29 April 2021Broadcast sowing
6 kg/hm2		N: 120 kg/hm2
P2O5: 33.6 kg/hm2
K2O: 38.4 kg/hm2		The special compound fertilizer was applied to rape as basal fertilizer
13 October 2021–25 April 2022
Mid-season
rice		8 May 2021–29 September 2021Hole direct seeding
27 cm × 16 cm		N: 195 kg/hm2
P2O5: 90 kg/hm2
K2O: 180 kg/hm2		Nitrogen fertilizer was applied at the rate of basal fertilizer: tillering fertilizer: panicle fertilizer = 4:2:4, phosphorus fertilizer was both applied as basal fertilizer, and potassium fertilizer was applied at the rate of basal fertilizer: panicle fertilizer = 6:4
10 May 2022–30 September 2022Artificial transplanting
30 cm × 16 cm		N: 225 kg/hm2
P2O5: 90 kg/hm2
K2O: 180 kg/hm2
Table 4. Price list of different agricultural inputs.
Table 4. Price list of different agricultural inputs.
CropSeed Prices
(CNY/kg)		Frequency of MedicationMan-Hour
(h)		Selling Price
(According to Local Market)
(CNY/kg)
HerbicidePesticide
early rice10121202.2
later rice20121203
mid-season
rice		Direct
broadcast		9013902.5
transplanting150
rape6014906.2
Chinese milk vetch30  15 
Other cost itemLabor cost
(CNY/h)		rape special fertilizer
(CNY/kg)		Urea
(CNY/kg)		potassium chloride
(CNY/kg)		Calcium magnesium phosphate fertilizer
(CNY/kg)
15434.41
Tillage of rice (CNY/ha)Rape ditching
(CNY/ha)		Herbicide
(CNY/ha)		Pesticides
(CNY/ha)		Spraying
pesticides by drone
(CNY/ha)
1500750150450120
Transplanting (CNY/ha)Hole direct seeding
(CNY/ha)		Harvest of
rice and rape
(CNY/ha)
Early riceLate riceMid-
season rice		Mid-
season rice
28504500375022501500
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Su, Q.; Wang, J.; Lv, W.; Chen, M.; Xiong, W.; Chen, L.; Zeng, Y. Comparative Analysis of Rice Yield and Economic Performance Across Different Planting Patterns in Double-Cropping Rice Systems Under Global Warming. Plants 2025, 14, 3593. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14233593

AMA Style

Su Q, Wang J, Lv W, Chen M, Xiong W, Chen L, Zeng Y. Comparative Analysis of Rice Yield and Economic Performance Across Different Planting Patterns in Double-Cropping Rice Systems Under Global Warming. Plants. 2025; 14(23):3593. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14233593

Chicago/Turabian Style

Su, Qianxing, Jinyao Wang, Weisheng Lv, Ming Chen, Wen Xiong, Le Chen, and Yongjun Zeng. 2025. "Comparative Analysis of Rice Yield and Economic Performance Across Different Planting Patterns in Double-Cropping Rice Systems Under Global Warming" Plants 14, no. 23: 3593. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14233593

APA Style

Su, Q., Wang, J., Lv, W., Chen, M., Xiong, W., Chen, L., & Zeng, Y. (2025). Comparative Analysis of Rice Yield and Economic Performance Across Different Planting Patterns in Double-Cropping Rice Systems Under Global Warming. Plants, 14(23), 3593. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14233593

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