Recent Insights into the Morphological, Nutritional and Phytochemical Properties of Indian Gooseberry (Phyllanthus emblica) for the Development of Functional Foods
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Species Classification
2.1. Flower Biology of Aonla
2.2. Morphological Characteristics of Different Aonla Cultivars
2.3. Physical Characteristics of Different Aonla Cultivars
2.4. Chemical Characteristics of Different Aonla Fruit Cultivars
2.5. Mineral Characteristics of Different Aonla Cultivars
2.6. Total Polyphenol and Antioxidant Activity of Different Aonla Fruit Cultivars
2.7. Antimicrobial Activity of Different Aonla Fruit Cultivars
3. Clinical Studies on Different Extracts of Aonla
3.1. Human Beings
3.2. Animals
3.2.1. Rats
3.2.2. Fish
3.2.3. Cow
3.2.4. Plants
4. Application of Aonla in Value-Added Products
4.1. Beverages
4.2. Dried Products
4.3. Chutney, Sauce, Pickle, and Preserves
4.4. Ayurvedic Products
4.5. Other Products
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Morphological Characteristics of Aonla Cultivars | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Varieties/Characteristic | Tree Height (m) | Tree Habit | Tree Form | Leaf Size (cm) | Leaf Form | Leaf Width (cm) | Leaf Apex | Foliage | Inflorescence Colour | References |
Chakaiya | 3.78 | Upright | Spreading | 1.24 | Oblong | 0.30 | Acute | Sparse | Pinkish green | [1,20,21,22,23] |
Banarasi | 3.90 | Upright | Spreading | 1.29 | Oblong | 0.37 | Obtuse | Sparse | Deep green | |
Francis | 4.21 | Tall | Dropping | 1.47 | Oval oblong | 0.32 | Obtuse | Dense | Yellowish green | |
Kanchan | 4.59 | Tall | Spreading | 1.29 | Oval oblong | 0.32 | Acute | Sparse | Pinkish green | |
Krishna | 3.86 | Upright | Spreading | 1.29 | Oblong | 0.31 | Obtuse | Sparse | Deep green | |
Anand-2 | 5.67 | Tall | Upright | 1.25 | Oblong | 0.23 | Obtuse | Sparse | Light green to pinkish | |
Anand-1 | 5.52 | Tall | Upright | 1.27 | Oblong | 0.26 | Obtuse | Sparse | Green to light pink | |
NA-10 | 3.89 | Semi tall | Semi spreading | 1.28 | Oblong | 0.30 | Obtuse | Dense | Green to light pink | |
NA-7 | 4.03 | Tall | Semi-Spreading | 1.40 | Elliptical | 0.30 | Obtuse | Dense | Green to light pink | |
Physical and structural characteristics of aonla fruit cultivars | ||||||||||
Varieties/Characteristics | Fruit Weight (gm) | Fruit Length (cm) | Fruit Width (cm) | Fruit Shape | Fruit Colour | No of Segments | Styler End | Pulp (g/100 g of Fruit) | Juice (%) | References |
Chakaiya | 30.66 | 3.35 | 4.00 | Round Flattened | Pale green | 6 | Levelled | 28.64 | 40.00 | [1,16,21,22,24,25,27,28,29] |
Banarasi | 33.90 | 3.73 | 4.37 | Triangular | Whitish green | 6 | Levelled | 31.91 | 41.34 | |
Francis | 30.41 | 3.07 | 3.40 | Round Flattened | Whitish green | 6 | Levelled | 28.33 | 52.12 | |
Kanchan | 25.94 | 3.82 | 3.99 | Round Flattened | Whitish green | 6–8 | Levelled | 23.95 | 48.12 | |
Krishna | 33.56 | 3.70 | 3.93 | Triangular | Pale green | 6–8 | Prominent | 31.51 | 61.60 | |
Anand-2 | 26.63 | 3.12 | 3.41 | Flattened oval | Yellowish green | 6 | Less prominent | 26.48 | 46.15 | |
Anand-1 | 28.53 | 3.10 | 3.45 | Flattened oval | Greenish yellow | 6 | Less prominent | 24.59 | 44.52 | |
NA-10 | 31.45 | 3.39 | 3.98 | Flattened Round | Yellowish green | 6 | Levelled | 29.46 | 58.15 | |
NA-7 | 33.76 | 3.62 | 4.00 | Flattened Round | Yellowish green | 6 | Less prominent | 31.79 | 64.45 | |
Desi | 14.27 | 25.12 | 29.38 | Round | Yellowish green | 6 | Less prominent | 35.65 | 44.50 |
Chemical Characteristics of Aonla Fruit Cultivars * | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Fruit Cultivars/Characteristics | TSS (°Brix) | Acidity (%) | pH | Reducing Sugar (%) | Non-Reducing Sugar (%) | Total Sugar (%) | Starch (%) | Ascorbic Acid (mg/100 g) | Pectin (%) | References |
Chakaiya | 10.6 | 2.10 | 2.88 | 22.17 | 14.73 | 36.91 | 29.23 | 399.76 | 2.98 | [1,28,30,31,32,33,36,37,38,39] |
Francis | 9.70 | 2.02 | - | 2.65 | 1.38 | 4.03 | - | 571.15 | - | |
Banarasi | 8.0 | 2.21 | 2.84 | 17.80 | 11.52 | 29.33 | 16.07 | 334.12 | 2.41 | |
Kanchan | 10.2 | 2.03 | 2.82 | 18.19 | 10.65 | 28.84 | 16.42 | 427.27 | 2.28 | |
Krishna | 10.62 | 2.19 | - | - | - | 7.61 | - | 494.00 | - | |
Anand-1 | 11.30 | 2.05 | - | - | - | - | - | 419.45 | - | |
Anand-2 | 12.70 | 2.34 | 1.97 | 7.60 | - | 7.91 | - | 120.95 | - | |
NA-7 | 11.50 | 2.05 | 2.82 | 17.58 | 15.26 | 32.85 | 18.49 | 453.20 | 2.25 | |
NA-10 | 14.19 | 2.63 | - | - | - | 9.49 | - | 473 | - | |
Desi | 8.80 | 12.06 | 2.71 | 16.33 | 12.67 | 28.01 | 19.34 | 352.45 | 11.19 | |
Mineral characteristics of aonla fruit cultivars * | ||||||||||
Fruit Cultivars/Characteristics | Sodium (ppm) | Calcium (mg/100 g) | Zinc (ppm) | Iron (mg/100 g) | Potassium (mg/100 g) | References | ||||
Chakaiya | 69.37 | 17.84 | 65.56 | 3.10 | 62.20 | [1,28,30,34,35] | ||||
Banarasi | 53.71 | 17.84 | 45.66 | 1.77 | 58.22 | |||||
Kanchan | 71.51 | 24.73 | 50.48 | 2.46 | 64.36 | |||||
NA-7 | 64.49 | 21.385 | 53.09 | 2.73 | 63.90 | |||||
Desi | 58.72 | 28.40 | 49.65 | 1.86 | 43.67 |
Total Polyphenol and Antioxidant Activity of Different Aonla Fruit Cultivars | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Varieties/Characteristics | Extract | Total Phenolics (mg/100 g) | Antioxidant Activity (%) | Ellagic Acid (mg/100 g) | Gallic Acid (mg/100 g) | Ascorbic Acid (mg/100 g) | Quercetin (mg/100 g) | References |
Chakaiya | Methanol | 375.98 | 66.7 | 155.16 | 83.74 | 136.48 | 0.27 | [40,41,42,43,44,45] |
Banarasi | 391.42 | 74.4 | 124.11 | 87.68 | 178.96 | 0.34 | ||
Kanchan | 493.7 | 69.6 | 167.41 | 199.05 | 126.42 | 0.55 | ||
NA-7 | 477.2 | 75.2 | 113.35 | 154.77 | 206.75 | 1.94 | ||
Desi | 752.65 | 75.2 | 349.51 | 233.49 | 167.19 | 1.48 | ||
Chakaiya | Ethanol | 324.62 | 66.0 | 50.22 | 43.83 | 228.25 | 0.56 | |
Banarasi | 336.72 | 70.6 | 43.61 | 64.90 | 224.82 | 0.47 | ||
Kanchan | 378.07 | 74.3 | 33.98 | 46.72 | 293.51 | 0.87 | ||
NA-7 | 436.33 | 71.9 | 38.70 | 48.46 | 342.96 | 0.24 | ||
Desi | 533.29 | 85.6 | 61.62 | 52.55 | 375.97 | 1.19 | ||
Chakaiya | Ethyl acetate | 158.47 | 35.2 | 92.44 | 83.16 | 65.82 | 0.34 | |
Banarasi | 164.3 | 39.8 | 58.57 | 67.57 | 36.99 | 0.64 | ||
Kanchan | 149.35 | 36.9 | 41.84 | 53.40 | 53.55 | 0.32 | ||
NA-7 | 104.46 | 40.3 | 44.52 | 29.30 | 29.89 | 0.49 | ||
Desi | 299.85 | 46.5 | 92.44 | 83.16 | 122.47 | 0.74 | ||
Antimicrobial activity of different aonla fruit cultivars | ||||||||
Variety/Characteristics | Extract | E. coli | Salmonella typhi | Candida albicans | Staphylococcus aureus | References | ||
Chakaiya | Methanol | 1.33 | 3.35 | 1.12 | 1.91 | [11,23,45,47,48] | ||
Banarasi | 1.61 | 3.75 | 1.36 | 4.57 | ||||
Kanchan | 1.38 | 3.74 | 1.13 | 4.16 | ||||
NA-7 | 1.70 | 3.91 | 1.46 | 5.16 | ||||
Desi | 1.85 | 4.30 | 1.50 | 5.22 | ||||
Chakaiya | Ethanol | 2.07 | 1.42 | 1.53 | 5.88 | |||
Banarasi | 2.33 | 2.41 | 2.86 | 3.72 | ||||
Kanchan | 2.10 | 2.27 | 2.66 | 3.49 | ||||
NA-7 | 2.51 | 2.99 | 3.25 | 5.29 | ||||
Desi | 2.55 | 3.10 | 3.66 | 5.88 | ||||
Chakaiya | Ethyl acetate | 1.20 | 2.14 | 1.39 | 2.74 | |||
Banarasi | 1.34 | 2.33 | 1.65 | 4.26 | ||||
Kanchan | 1.30 | 2.17 | 1.57 | 3.14 | ||||
NA-7 | 1.48 | 2.60 | 1.80 | 4.52 | ||||
Desi | 1.52 | 2.81 | 1.81 | 5.34 |
Type | Disease | Treatment | Description | Result | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Humans | Cervical cancer | PE concentrations (10, 30, 100, 300 g/mL) with varied time. | PE prevented the formation of cervical cancer by inhibiting AP-1. | PE shows anti-AP-1 and anti-HPV activity which cures cervical cancer in human. | [49] |
Skin Cancer | Solution of PE 10, 50, and 100 μg/m. | PE assessment against UVB-induced keratinocyte inflammation and apoptosis was studied. | PE reduced inflammation and shielded HaCaT cells from UVB-induced oxidative damage. | [50] | |
Oxidative stress | PE 600 g/mL. | Therapeutic potential of PE was investigated. | Antioxidants of PE extract treats inflammation by preventing the oxidative stress. | [51] | |
Endothelial dysfunction | Dose of 250 and 500 mg of Phyllanthus emblica twice daily. | Effects of PE on ED, oxidative stress, systemic inflammation, and lipid profile of patients were investigated. | PE enhanced endothelial function considerable reduction was seen in RI, GSH, and ED. | [52] | |
Aging in humans | The resilience of cells given 0.1 mg/mL PE extract treatment. | Effects of amla branch extract in delaying aging process was investigated. | Amla shows anti-aging properties, including skin lightening, wrinkle reduction, as well as improved elasticity and hydration. | [53] | |
Animals-Rat | Diabetes in rats | HMELEO dosage 100, 200, 300, and 400 mg/kg bodyweight orally for 45 days. | Diabetes caused by streptozotocin shows enhanced oxidative stress in rats. | EO extract shows hypoglycaemic effects, antidiabetic effect and decrease in oxidative stress. | [54] |
Premature ageing | Amlaki (capsule containing 500 mg of amla powder) 1 g/day once daily for 3 months. | Study conducted on 30 individuals with stress-related premature ageing. | Amalaki capsule slow down the effects of stress-related premature ageing. | [55] | |
Gastric ulcer | Omeprazole/day dosage of 3 mg/kg and GAE dosage of 5 mg/kg per day for 3 days. | Indomethacin 18 mg/kg; administration of single dose resulted in stomach ulceration. | GAE shows anti-ulcerogenic property and speeds up the healing of ulcers. | [56] | |
Oedema in mice | Malacca leaf ethanol extract dosage 300, 200, and 100 mg/kg b.w. | Carrageenan (1%), piroxicam suspension (20 mg), and Malacca leaf used to cause inflammation. | Malacca leaf ethanol extract cures oedema in mice. | [57] | |
Cardiotoxicity in rats | ISP injections (85 mg/kg, given once per 24 h) and E. officinalis (100, 250 and 500 mg/kg, p.o.). | Cardiotoxicity in rats is induced by isoproterenol. | Antioxidant activity of E.O. is attributable to its cardio-protective potential, showing improvements in hemodynamic contractile function. | [58] | |
Carcinogenic damage | Triphala dosage 3 mg/kg b.w. orally for 5 weeks in drinking water. | 1,2-dimethylhydrazinedihydrochloride causes ER stress in mouse liver (DMH). | Triphala protects liver from early neoplastic changes brought on by DMH and ER stress. | [59] | |
Alzheimer in rats | The aluminium chloride was administered along with the unprocessed amla powder 500 mg/kg and unfortified amla powder 300 mg/kg. | Disease was induced by injecting aluminium chloride intraperitoneally for 28 days with dosage of 4.2 mg/kg. | Antioxidant and radical-scavenging activities of amla shows neuroprotective behaviour in enhancing memory. | [60] | |
Kidney injury | Dose of 125, 250, or 500 mg/ kg of PE extract daily. | CI-AKI resulted from the administration of intravenous iodinated contrast agents. | The antioxidant properties of aonla maintain renal function, and PE extract prevents CI-AKI. | [61] | |
Tumour in mouse | P. emblica (10% sucrose, 18 days 100 mg/kg bodyweight/day. | PE lowers the expression of HIF-1 and endothelial cell antigen CD31 in mice xenograft tumours. | PE reduces HIF-1 expression and endothelial cell antigen CD31 in mice xenograft tumours. | [62] | |
Chronic stress in rats | PE extract of 50 mg or 100 mg/kg bodyweight. | Effects of PE aqueous leaf extract on the changes in protein markers of stressed rats was investigated. | Modifications in testicular tyrosine-phosphorylated proteins; testicular injury in mice with CS is alleviated. | [63] | |
Fish | Atherosclerosis | E-EA was directly injected (10 g/mL final concentration) for 10 days. | Phytomedicines were examined for their influence on the in vivo development of atherosclerosis. | Inflammatory cells and vascular lipid were less prevalent in zebrafish larvae. E-EA prevents the onset of atherosclerosis. | [64] |
Inflammation in fish | Base diet supplemented with 0, 5, 10, 20, and 40 mg/kg AFE for 8 weeks. | Effects of PE on skin mucosal immunity and serum protection was investigated. | Dose of 10 mg AFE kg used as an immunostimulant and growth promoter in Nile tilapia aquaculture. | [65] | |
Cow | Immunomodulation of bovine calves | EO and Tinospora cordifolia (2:1) dosage 450 mg/ kg bodyweight once daily for 28 days orally. | The immunomodulation of bovine calves is the subject of research. | Combinations of EO and TC have immunogenic effects and reduce calf mortality. | [66] |
Atherogenicity | Fresh aonla fruit 200, 400 and 600 g/day for 14 days. | Milk antioxidant properties and milk fatty acid ratios were investigated. | PE increases butter quality, antioxidant activity, and protein efficiency and decreases atherogenicity in cows. | [67] | |
Plants-Rice | Chromium toxicity in rice | Dose of 100 μMCr (K2Cr2O7) or Cr + P. emblica aqueous extract for 4–8 days. | Effects of APE in minimizing the Cr toxicity on rice seedlings was investigated. | Oxidative stress was lowered with the inhibition of the uptake of Cr, and APE reduces the effects of Cr on rice seedlings. | [68] |
Types | Value Added Product | Formulation | Use | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Beverages | Aonla RTS | RTS is prepared using ginger and aonla. | Good source of vitamin C. | [69] |
Dried products | Aonla shreds | Fruit grated into shreds and combined with 4% salt and dried to a moisture content of 15%. | High in vitamin C concentration. | [70] |
Aonla powder | Fruit juice was obtained and dried with spray drying method. | Excellent iron, phosphorus, calcium, and ascorbic acid retention. | [33] | |
Aonla candy | Fruit that has been extracted, drained, and dried after being impregnated with sugar. | Higher acceptance, smaller volume, and enhanced nutritious content. | [71] | |
Aonla pills | Prepared by drying aonla pulp and mixing it with powdered ginger, cumin, and salt. | Vitamin C-rich and digestive pills are incredibly tasty. | [70] | |
Chutney, sauce, pickle and preserve | Aonal chutney | Aonla chutney has delicious flavours that are fiery, sweet, smooth, spicy, and mellow. | It is tasty and nutritious. | [70] |
Aonla sauce | Prepared by using 50% aonla and 50% tomato. | Long shelf life. | [71] | |
Aonla pickle | Fruit pieces were mixed with spices and oil for pickle production (1 kg aonla fruit, salt, turmeric, red chili powder, fenugreek, clove, and oil). | Rich in vitamin C, and it also prevents the formation of ulcers. | [72] | |
Aonla preserve | Made from whole fruit or large pieces of fruits steeped in sugar until it is tender and translucent. | Beneficial for purifying the blood, lowering cholesterol levels, and improving vision. | [71] | |
Ayurvedic products | Chyawanprash | A mixture of ingredients including aonla, sesame oil, ghee, honey, and other ingredients. | Restores metabolic processes, treats abnormalities like gas and coughing, and actsas a powerful immunity booster. | [73] |
Ashokarishta | Amla is combined with ashoka tree decoction and other ingredients like mango seeds, jeera, haritaki, dhataki, and musta, with which a tonic is prepared. | Beneficial for treating pelvic inflammatory illness, reducing menstrual cramps, and for preventing osteoporosis and the loss of minerals from bones. | [8] | |
Other products | Aonlaladoo | Powdered satavari roots are used to prepare herbal aonla ladoo. | Nutritious and have more medicinal value. | [74] |
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Avinash, P.G.; Hamid; Shams, R.; Dash, K.K.; Shaikh, A.M.; Ungai, D.; Harsányi, E.; Suthar, T.; Kovács, B. Recent Insights into the Morphological, Nutritional and Phytochemical Properties of Indian Gooseberry (Phyllanthus emblica) for the Development of Functional Foods. Plants 2024, 13, 574. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants13050574
Avinash PG, Hamid, Shams R, Dash KK, Shaikh AM, Ungai D, Harsányi E, Suthar T, Kovács B. Recent Insights into the Morphological, Nutritional and Phytochemical Properties of Indian Gooseberry (Phyllanthus emblica) for the Development of Functional Foods. Plants. 2024; 13(5):574. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants13050574
Chicago/Turabian StyleAvinash, Pawar Gayatri, Hamid, Rafeeya Shams, Kshirod Kumar Dash, Ayaz Mukarram Shaikh, Diána Ungai, Endre Harsányi, Tejas Suthar, and Béla Kovács. 2024. "Recent Insights into the Morphological, Nutritional and Phytochemical Properties of Indian Gooseberry (Phyllanthus emblica) for the Development of Functional Foods" Plants 13, no. 5: 574. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants13050574
APA StyleAvinash, P. G., Hamid, Shams, R., Dash, K. K., Shaikh, A. M., Ungai, D., Harsányi, E., Suthar, T., & Kovács, B. (2024). Recent Insights into the Morphological, Nutritional and Phytochemical Properties of Indian Gooseberry (Phyllanthus emblica) for the Development of Functional Foods. Plants, 13(5), 574. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants13050574