Job Crafting Competences and the Levels of Self-Organization, Job Satisfaction and Job Redesign in a Mature Organization

Abstract

This research focused on the effect of employee competences on job crafting in a mature organization, but the levels of self-organization, job satisfaction and job redesign were also investigated. In order to assess the relationship between variables and the significance of differences between response groups, contingency tables were used and chi-square tests were conducted, with p < 0.05 as the limit of statistical significance. All calculations were performed using IBM SPSS. The opinions of employees (n = 300) were analyzed in the context of job satisfaction, competences recognized as strengths, self-organization in the workplace and the acceptance of supervisors of suggested job redesign. The research showed that employees of a mature organization consider the following competence areas to be their strengths: cooperation with others, work organization and timely implementation of tasks. According to the survey, employees were able to redesign their jobs in the area of work organization, working time and task timeline, and they obtained the approval of their superiors. Self-organization in the workplace and job satisfaction were important to them, but in some areas they had limited freedom to implement job crafting. As an important starting point for extended studies, the results of the research might encourage responsible staff management to focus on the modeling of sustainable work.

1. Introduction

In the dynamically developing environment of mature organizations, traditional methods of human resources management have become insufficient. An increasing number of organizations are turning to innovative and advanced methods of proactive transformation that support the efficiency of HR processes. These are activities aimed at employee behavior, together with the active introduction of changes in job characteristics that determine employee well-being [1].

It was assumed that locating problems in a mature organization is a good way to study employee competence areas in job crafting and to determine the levels of self-organization, job satisfaction and job redesign possibilities. According to the author’s understanding, a mature organization is one that cares about the quality of employees’ performances and relies on their opinions. Such an organization is continually focused on improving the maturity level of its business processes to achieve the intended competitive advantage.

The assessment of an organization’s maturity level was aimed at determining its ability to implement job crafting. In the context of this study, it was important to identify the areas of employee competence to analyze job satisfaction and the extent of self-organization in the workplace. The result of the assessment could be used to ensure efficient management of human resources and to implement job crafting processes.

The problem addressed in this paper is important for business owners (the author being one), managers and employees. For the owner, it is first of all an opportunity to increase work efficiency [1,2,3,4] and, consequently, the profitability of the company. Secondly, it helps to build sustainable human resources strongly involved in their work [5,6,7,8,9] and promotes pro-social behavior. Thirdly, it fosters attachment of employees to the company, which reduces the risk of additional costs associated with their fluctuations. For managers, it provides opportunities to improve work organization, internal communication and involvement of team members in work [2,5,9], shaping pro-social behavior and an organizational culture based on job satisfaction. For employees, the problem addressed in the research focused on professional development, promoting employee autonomy and self-fulfillment of employees [10], which provides a sense of purpose [2] and creates a good climate for innovation [11,12] and creativity [13]. There is a lot of evidence in the empirical literature that a sense of purpose affects job satisfaction, productivity and motivation [14,15].

In recent years, there has been an increasing interest in the problem presented in this paper, but the research gap remains, especially with regard to job crafting in mature organizations. By typing “job crafting” into the EBSCO Essentials search engine, 32 publications from 2009–2012, 106 from 2013–2016 and 209 from 2017–2020 (till 20 November 2020) can be found [16]. From 1 January 2021, till 29 October 2022, a total of 457 papers were published. Although the increasing popularity of this issue translates into more research, there are only a few references in the literature to job crafting practices in mature organizations and to the freedom to introduce changes in this area. In addition, to find out whether the interest in job crafting is growing or decreasing, the Google Trends tool was used. The results of the 2018–2022 analysis showed a slightly growing trend, but one that remained in a low range of 0–100 searches over a few days. From 1 January 2021, to 29 October 2022, the greatest number of searches per day for “job crafting” was 100 (27 March 2022–2 April 2022). Considering this small number of searches, it can be concluded that the popularity of the problem is not large, and the upward trend is small.

Despite a significant increase in research and practices in the field of the impact of human resource management on an organization’s sustainable development, there are only a few scientific publications on job satisfaction and on employee behavior in initiating job crafting implementation in a mature organization in Poland. A review of leading American journals from 1996–2004 showed that 94% of articles on work psychology were devoted to negative phenomena [16] (pp. 423–424). Moreover, no attempt was made to assess the relationship between job crafting practices and sustainable development of a mature organization in the context of employee behavior and expectations in relation to job design, working time, work organization, workplace, scope of work or task timeline. The possibility of influencing these areas can, indeed, be a source of job satisfaction and a motivator for self-organization in the workplace. It can induce a greater commitment to making changes at work, serving development and facilitating the company’s management.

Along with more research on job crafting, different theoretical concepts and definitions have been created and have evolved. There is, therefore, a need to systematize and analyze them [16] (p. 424). In management and quality sciences there are gaps in both theoretical and empirical studies, with room for research on job crafting in a mature organization.

The advantages of job crafting presented above significantly motivated the present research. However, there might also be significant obstacles in job crafting implementation, like employees’ negative perceptions of changes, mainly of changes that affect their workplaces. Job redesign is often seen as forced by superiors, leading to unexpected disturbances. Contrary to this, it is possible for job redesign to be initiated and performed by employees, without the involvement of, or only limited involvement of, organizational resources [17] (p. 1). In such a case, employees adapt their duties to their individual needs and preferences, instead of doing tasks created by the organization without proper consideration [18] (p. 1). The above requires that the organization should approve such a strategy, and then initiate it and create favorable conditions for its development. Job crafting can increase business efficiency when the employer seeks to encourage, and then maintain, employee work satisfaction [1,2,3].

To fill the research gap, the present study aimed to identify the areas of employee competence in the workplace and to determine the level of self-organization and job satisfaction and their impacts on the areas of work in a mature organization. The research results could be used by theoreticians to create or improve job crafting models. Additionally, management practitioners, advisors and trainers could use the results to seek employee-friendly solutions, which could contribute to employee well-being and the efficiency of the organization.

2. Literature Review

It must be admitted that the present situation in Europe related to inflation, slow economic recovery and the COVID-19 pandemic affects sustainable business practices. These problems affect self-organization, and work management methods and result in restructuring and in the creation of new work models [19,20].

Job crafting is a relatively new concept, introduced into psychology by Wrzesniewski and Dutton in 2001 [21]. Due to subsequent research, its various definitions and models have developed. It has found applications in various disciplines of science, also in management and quality sciences, where the areas of research are work processes, sustainable work or individualization of human resources management [22]. According to Wrzesniewski and Dutton, job crafting concerns three areas: task crafting, relational crafting and cognitive crafting [21].

A critical literature review indicates that there is a consensus among researchers that job crafting is a bottom-up process, initiated by the employee, which aims to modify the work so that it is tailored to the employee, is optimized and provides satisfaction [3,17,18,21,23]. Participants of this process become promoters of their own work and of the organization, which is beneficial for both parties. In the literature, problems related to employee motivation are often discussed.

More and more scientists point to the important role of job crafting in increasing employee autonomy [10] and in creating a climate for innovation [11], creativity [13] and motivation [24]. The literature presents solutions that employees can use to adapt to work in order to achieve satisfaction and increase their commitment [6]. Research done by the author of this paper indicates that even a short brainstorming, a small reorganization or minor changes in work organization can have a huge impact on optimizing and improving work quality. Other researchers point out that modern organizations need active and engaged employees capable of creating and maintaining motivation [25,26].

Research on the Wrzesniewski and Dutton [21] model was, for a long time, purely qualitative, and job crafting was mainly investigated on the basis of information obtained during in-depth interviews with employees [16] (p. 425). It was only a few years ago that Slemp and Vella-Brodrick developed the Job Crafting Questionnaire (JCQ) [27]. The authors wanted to fill the research gap by developing and validating a 15-point JCQ questionnaire. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis supported the three-type structure with the task crafting, relational crafting and cognitive crafting originally presented by Wrzesniewski and Dutton. Additionally, analysis showed that the JCQ correlated positively with proactive behavior and positive functioning at work (i.e., job satisfaction and enthusiasm and their positive impacts) [27] (p. 126). A Polish adaptation of JCQ was developed by Kasprzak, Michalak and Minda [28]. Relationship analysis allows treating the version developed by the authors as consistent with the theoretical model of Wrzesniewski and Dutton [28] (p. 470).

The classical approach to job crafting was criticized by Tims and Bakker, the creators of the Job Demands—Resources (JDR) model. They claimed that the classical approach did not take into account the role of job demands and job resources [18]. Ultimately, the concept of the JDR model involves four job crafting dimensions: increasing structural job resources, increasing social job resources, increasing challenging job demands and reducing job demands perceived as obstacles [2]. The literature presents a measurement tool in the Tims, Bakker and Derks four-factor model called the Job Crafting Scale (JCS) [2]. A Polish version of the JCS tool has been developed by Rogala and Cieślak [29]. However, critical views on the four-factor structure of the JDR model have appeared, with some new proposals. Some researchers point to the superiority of a five-factor model [30], while others have expressed theoretical and empirical remarks resulting from meta-analyses [5,10,31]. Analyzing the literature and the dependencies between particular areas of job crafting, Zhang and Parker [32] tried to integrate theoretical concepts of both Wrzesniewski and Dutton and Tims and Bakker [16] (p. 427), creating a three-level model of job crafting. The first level consists of approach-oriented or avoidance-oriented job crafting, the next level comprises behavioral or cognitive crafting, and the lowest level determines whether crafting is directed toward job resources or job demands. Thus, Zhang and Parker assumed the existence of eight different types of job crafting in their three-level model [32]. In the context of the present author’s research, the model of Kooij and van Woerkom et al. deserves attention [33]. According to the authors, their job crafting model results in a better person—job fit. The model consists primarily of two types of job crafting, i.e., crafting toward strengths and crafting toward interests, which aim to improve the fit between work and personal strengths and interests [33]. In the next model of Kooij and Kuijpers [34], apart from the two types of work crafting mentioned above, there is a third one, crafting toward development, which is within the interest of this paper’s author. The literature also presents the model of Bindl and Unswortth et al. [35], in which the authors point to eight job crafting forms of which four are promotion-oriented (focused on profitability and growth) and four are prevention-oriented (focused on reducing barriers and negative consequences).

As mentioned in the Introduction, interest in job crafting is increasing. Scientific controversies and disputes reveal theoretical and empirical gaps, which encourages further studies. The literature review presented above consists of an overview of job crafting and of its models, necessary to developing the topic of this paper and making it meaningful. The evolution and current state of research were analyzed with a view to identifying the basic patterns and assumptions of the studies in this field so far and to offer a theoretical framework for presenting job crafting competences in this paper. The review of the literature revealed research gaps to be filled, which significantly influenced the author’s research.

3. Materials and Methods

The assessment of organization maturity is aimed at determining the ability of an organization to continuously monitor the external environment (determining opportunities, trends, threats and risks) and internal conditions (determining the potential of processes to achieve goals). Such an assessment can be used to ensure efficient and sustainable management of the organization’s processes and resources. When assessing the process maturity of an organization, the key step is to choose the model to use to assess whether an organization is mature or not. Auksztol and Chomuszko [36] point out that there are several process maturity models developed for various organizations. They distinguish four groups of models: Capability Maturity Model (CMM), Business Process Maturity Model (BPMM), industry models often inspired by CMM/CMMI or BPMM and organizational models that contain some elements of maturity, e.g., Information Technology Infrastructure Library (ITIL), which includes Process Maturity Framework (PMF) [36] (p. 42–43). The CMM model inspired the development of BPMM [37], both having five levels of maturity. Maturity levels were adapted to the conditions of the present research, using the BPMM model and taking into account the processes taking place in Polish companies (

Table 1. Characteristics of organization maturity levels.

Maturity Level	Maturity Level Characteristics
Level One/Unpredictable—Inconsistent	The level is characterized by an inconsistent approach to management, i.e., the processes are unpredictable, often informal, sporadically controlled or even uncontrolled. Work and management activities are not standardized and difficult to copy and manage. The success of work mainly depends on the individual professional abilities of employees. The effectiveness of processes is predicted only on the basis of individual tasks of employees, and not within the entire organization.
Level Two/Reactive—Repetitive	The level is characterized by the reactive action of the organization, i.e., it reacts when a problem or external stimulus arises. The absence of change is seen as a desired situation. The efficiency of processes is predicted on the basis of previously mastered tasks that can be repeated. Successful practices of past actions resulting in stability are also repeated. As a consequence, new tasks are planned and managed according to previous experience.
Level Three/Predictable—Continuously Learning and Consistent	The level is characterized by constant learning about the organization and by adapting to change. Processes are defined and well understood. The organization consistently carries out tasks based on experience, learning from others and making changes in structure and management. Drawing on the past, it cares about the present and future, being able to change the organization and to design management, including professional roles and responsibilities. The effectiveness of processes is predicted on the basis of experience, systematic learning and a high threshold of acceptance of changes.
Level Four/Comprehensive	The level is characterized by the ability to manage processes effectively, by involving knowledge of current trends and anticipation of future ones. The organization measures and analyzes processes, identifying strengths and weaknesses, opportunities and threats and taking actions to improve management. The effectiveness is predicted on the basis of comprehensive measurements of quality, scientific achievements and trends, but also on the basis of comparison with other organizations.
Level Five/Expert—Optimized	The level is characterized by full awareness of the processes taking place in the organization and by continuous and systematic improvement. The organization applies systematized activities, using the best management and innovation practices and monitoring and optimizing its structure. Each element of the process is integrated with other elements. The organization learns on an ongoing basis and implements proven practices and innovative solutions, sharing them and creating standards. Efficiency is predicted on the basis of full knowledge of processes, with systematic monitoring of the effects of changes and innovations.

Source: Author’s elaboration.

).

In order to select respondents for the survey, potential respondents were first asked some questions to determine whether they worked or had worked for a mature organization. For this purpose, an original interview questionnaire was developed and used. The questionnaire was inspired by a model (Business Process Maturity Models—BPMM) based on five-step process maturity [38,39,40]. When the answers indicated that the organization met the criteria of a mature one, i.e., when it was at the third, fourth or fifth (highest) maturity level, the respondent was qualified for the second, main survey. Respondents who placed their organization at the first or second level, recognized by the author as immature, were not qualified for further interviews. The characteristics of the five levels of a mature organization are presented in Table 1.

The aim of the study was to identify the areas of employee competence in job crafting to determine the level of self-organization and job satisfaction and their impact on work efficiency in a mature organization. The research sought to answer the following questions:

• which competence areas in job crafting are considered by the employees to be their strengths?
• how do employees value self-organization and job satisfaction, and what freedom do employees have in designing changes in a mature organization?

The detailed research problems were as follows:

P1—What is the degree of job satisfaction according to gender and age?

P2—Can people with certain competences, recognized by them as their strengths, redesign their work and is the redesigning approved by the supervisor?

P3—Which gender and age group recognizes the value of self-organization to the greatest extent?

P4—Does the declared value of self-organization coincide with the freedom to make changes (job crafting) at work and, if so, in what area?

The main research hypotheses were put forward as follows: employees of a mature organization, in the identified areas of work, are mostly able to redesign their work; self-organization and job satisfaction are important to them, but they have limited freedom to design their work process and to apply job crafting.

The detailed hypotheses were as follows:

Hypothesis 1 (H1).

Employees of a mature organization are satisfied with their jobs.

Hypothesis 2 (H2).

Employees in the areas of competence recognized by them as their strengths are willing to redesign their jobs, but the supervisors do not accept such an action.

Hypothesis 3 (H3).

The great importance of self-organization is declared by the majority of employees of a mature organization, regardless of gender and age.

Hypothesis 4 (H4).

The value of self-organization declared by employees does not fully coincide with the freedom to redesign their jobs.

The research includes a critical review of the literature and a diagnostic survey, with interviews, questionnaires and observations and discussions with the moderator (according to a previously developed scenario). Purposive sampling was used with the sample size of 300 Polish respondents, with at least secondary education. At the time of the survey, they either worked or had worked for a mature organization.

Different data collection methods were used in the research: literature (books, magazines, articles, reports), surveys (a printed questionnaire provided to respondents to fill in), interviews (a printed interview sheet to fill in by the interviewer), discussions (a discussion worksheet to fill in by the moderator—participants did not consent to recording).

The research consisted of two stages. The first was to select 300 respondents working in a mature organization (using a questionnaire on the organization’s process maturity). When the answers of a respondent showed that the organization he or she worked in met the criteria of a mature one, i.e., if it was at the third, fourth or fifth maturity level, the respondent was eligible for the second stage of the survey (Table 1). The research was conducted from February, 2019, to March, 2020, with a group of 300 respondents who worked, or had worked, in a mature organization during their studies in Poland, in the Mazowieckie voivodeship. Among the respondents surveyed there were 178 women (59.3%) and 118 men (39.3%), while four of them (1.3%), for unknown reasons, did not provide gender. The vast majority of respondents (74.6%) were people aged 18–25, in the initial stage of building their professional career (career preparation stage). The confidence level index of the tests was α = 0.95, with a fraction size of 0.5 and a maximum error of 6% (

Table 2. Survey metrics.

Number of Full Population 2019/2020 [41]	The Needed Number of Respondents	The Real Number of Respondents	Confidence Level	Fraction Size	Maximum Error	Area Covered by the Survey
1,203,998	267	300	95% α = 0.95	0.5	6%	Poland, Mazowieckie Voivodeship
Age			Number of respondents	Percentage of respondents		Percentage of responses
How old are you?	18–21		67	22.3		22.5
	22–25		157	52.3		52.7
	26–30		37	12.3		12.4
	31–40		29	9.7		9.7
	over 40		8	2.7		2.7
Total			298	99.3		100.0
No answer			2	0.7
Total number of respondents			300	100.0

Source: Author’s elaboration.

).

Apart from the survey, discussions were held in thirteen groups (n = 300), with significant involvement of respondents, who were willing to express their opinions. In each of the groups, participants brought up new issues in the area of job crafting, presenting examples of practical action in the workplace, pointing out errors and ways of repair, suggesting improvements in work processes and possibilities of self-organization. Frequent exchange of views between the participants of the discussion dominated.

To answer the research questions, calculations were performed using IBM SPSS. In order to assess the relationships between the variables and the significance of differences between the response groups, contingency tables were used and chi-square tests were performed. The limit of statistical significance was assumed to be p < 0.05.

The main limitation encountered during the research was a lack of studies in the literature on employees building their professional career in a mature organization. What was also lacking was reports on issues affecting job crafting, self-organization and competence areas. The above made it difficult to conduct a comparative analysis of research results. In addition, the results of analyses in the literature were usually presented in the form of a psychological profile, but less often referred to professional competences and management in a mature organization.

4. Results

It was assumed that a mature organization should give the employee opportunities not only to earn money, but also to develop professionally in a positive work environment. Such an organization is guided by the principle that each side of the employment relationship affects its development quantitatively and qualitatively. In quantitative aspects, an organization is affected by the quantity and pace of work, while, in qualitative aspects, it is affected by the level of work performance, work standard, work difficulty and job redesign. Job crafting is related to building the sustainable development of a mature organization. In order to identify the level of sustainable development, it is necessary to assess the mature organization’s attitude to job crafting and activities conducive to supporting employee competence, self-organization and job satisfaction.

Answering a question about the degree of job satisfaction concerning Problem 1 (P1), the vast majority of respondents stated that they were satisfied with their jobs (78%, n = 300) and eager to go to work (71.3%, n = 300). Most of them were happy working for their current organization (65.2%, n = 299). Similarly, when responses were broken down according to gender (

Table 3. Respondents’ attitude to their jobs, by gender, n = 296.

Contingency Table
			Gender		Total
			Woman	Man
Do you like your job?	yes	n	142	88	230
		percentage	79.8%	74.6%	77.7%
	no	n	15	17	32
		percentage	8.4%	14.4%	10.8%
	no opinion	n	21	13	34
		percentage	11.8%	11.0%	11.5%
Total		n	178	118	296
		percentage	100.0%	100.0%	100.0%
Chi-squared test
			VALUE	d.f.	p
Pearson’s chi-squared test			2.632	2	0.268
Likelihood Ratio			2.576	2	0.276
Linear-by-Linear Association			0.304	1	0.581
N of valid cases			296

Source: Author’s elaboration.

), high job-satisfaction was mentioned by both women (79.8%, n = 178) and men (74.6%, n = 118). It could be assumed that such a high result of job satisfaction and employee willingness to go to work was due to an efficient management system in the mature organizations involved and high organizational culture. Mature organizations care about high standards and the smooth running of work processes. The participants of the discussion agreed that job satisfaction was driven by recognition of employee achievements, by opportunities for promotion and personal development with a successfully implemented career path, and also by an appropriate scope of work and reasonable job responsibilities [27]. It seems that person–job fit determined job satisfaction, leading to greater commitment and willingness to accept new goals and challenges. Paradoxically, satisfaction was also an effect of good task performance, because good work precedes satisfaction. On the other hand, dissatisfaction arose when personnel policy and interpersonal relations failed, when payment and working conditions were inadequate to the employee’s competences and when the balance between professional and non-professional life was violated.

The distribution of opinions according to age is presented in

Table 4. Respondents’ attitude to their jobs by age, n = 298.

Contingency Table
			Age					Total
			18–21	22–25	26–30	31–40	Over 40
Do you like your job?	Yes	n	51	121	32	24	5	233
		percentage	76.1%	77.1%	86.5%	82.8%	62.5%	78.2%
	No	n	7	19	3	1	1	31
		percentage	10.4%	12.1%	8.1%	3.4%	12.5%	10.4%
	No opinion	n	9	17	2	4	2	34
		percentage	13.4%	10.8%	5.4%	13.8%	25.0%	11.4%
Total		n	67	157	37	29	8	298
		percentage	100.0%	100.0%	100.0%	100.0%	100.0%	100.0%
Chi-squared test
			Value		d.f.		p
Pearson’s chi-squared test			5.618		8		0.690
Likelihood ratio			6.025		8		0.644
Linear-by-Linear association			0.041		1		0.840
N of valid cases			298

Source: Author’s elaboration.

. The respondents who were 26–30 years old liked their jobs most (86.5%, n = 37). The same attitude was expressed by 77.1% of the 22–25 age group, at n = 157. The young people were in a career building stage, starting their professional lives. The discussion showed that they did not have a lot of experience working for other organizations. Any consent of the management, even for small redesign of their work, gave them great satisfaction and motivated them to make an effort. It is believed that if a mature organization employs this age group, this creates the potential for its further development. This is a positive signal for organizations that focus on creative thinking about effectiveness, development and personnel policy stabilizing their employment.

Answering another question, a vast majority of women (71.9%, n = 178) and men (69.5%, n =,118) stated that they were eager to go to work. Similarly, satisfaction with work in the current organization (

Table 5. Respondents’ job satisfaction in the current organization by gender, n = 295.

Contingency Table
			Gender		Total
			Woman	Man
Are you satisfied working for your organization?	Yes	n	117	74	191
		percentage	65.7%	63.2%	64.7%
	No	n	31	24	55
		percentage	17.4%	20.5%	18.6%
	No opinion	n	30	19	49
		percentage	16.9%	16.2%	16.6%
Total		n	178	117	295
		percentage	100.0%	100.0%	100.0%
Chi-squared test
			Value	d.f.	p
Pearson’s chi-squared test			0.446	2	0.800
Likelihood Ratio			0.443	2	0.801
Linear-by-Linear Association			0.042	1	0.837
N of valid cases			295

Source: Author’s elaboration.

) was expressed by most women (65.7%, n = 178) and men (63.2%, n = 117). It should be emphasized that job satisfaction is a psychological reaction of an individual. From the perspective of gender studies [42,43,44,45], it is necessary to determine the role of gender in job satisfaction: whether gender differentiates job satisfaction, whether gender impact depends on age and whether it affects other job variables. According to the above studies, work has a similar meaning to women and men and, thus, job satisfaction in a mature organization does not depend on gender, but on other factors, like employee age, taken into account in the present research.

Regarding age groups, the answers to questions about work satisfaction in a mature organization were mostly positive in each group (

Table 6. Respondents’ job satisfaction in the current organization by age, n = 297.

Contingency Table
			Age					Total
			18–21	22–25	26–30	31–40	Over 40
Are you satisfied working for your organization?	Yes	n	39	101	29	22	3	194
		percentage	58.2%	64.7%	78.4%	75.9%	37.5%	65.3%
	No	n	14	30	4	3	3	54
		percentage	20.9%	19.2%	10.8%	10.3%	37.5%	18.2%
	No opinion	n	14	25	4	4	2	49
		percentage	20.9%	16.0%	10.8%	13.8%	25.0%	16.5%
Total		n	67	156	37	29	8	297
		percentage	100.0%	100.0%	100.0%	100.0%	100.0%	100.0%
Chi-squared test
			Value		d.f.		p
Pearson’s chi-squared test			9.038		8		0.339
Likelihood Ratio			9.116		8		0.333
Linear-by-Linear Association			1.126		1		0.289
N of valid cases			297

Source: Author’s elaboration.

). The results of the present research, with respondents aged 18 to 40 years of age, suggested that age mattered more than gender in the workplace. With age, job satisfaction increased, which might result from more experience and better professional competences, both, in turn, affecting work efficiency. Furthermore, older people are more likely than young ones to experience positive emotions, with negative ones being less pronounced [46]. With age, the relationship between cognitive processes and emotions changes [47], which is confirmed by other researchers [48,49]. Most researchers have found a positive linear relationship between age and job satisfaction. Bearing in mind the above, Hypothesis 1 (H1) that employees of a mature organization are satisfied with their jobs and like what they do was confirmed.

Research problem 2 concerned competences considered by respondents to be their strengths and which were necessary to redesigning their work, if approved by the supervisor. Out of ten statements regarding their key competence areas the respondents chose three (

Table 7. Competence areas considered by the respondents to be their strengths, n = 300 (multiple responses).

		Answers		Percentage of Responses
		n	Percentage of Respondents
Which area of competence are you good at?	work organisation	173	18.1%	57.7%
	timely implementation of tasks	156	16.3%	52.0%
	innovation and ingenuity at workplace	49	5.1%	16.3%
	cooperation with others	188	19.6%	62.7%
	managing people	55	5.7%	18.3%
	coping with stress	61	6.4%	20.3%
	adapting to change	81	8.5%	27.0%
	conflict resolution	39	4.1%	13.0%
	interpersonal communication	66	6.9%	22.0%
	creative thinking	90	9.4%	30.0%
Total		958	100.0%	319.3%

Source: Author’s elaboration.

). In the first place was cooperation with others (62.7%, n = 300), work organization in the second (57.7%, n = 300) and timely implementation of tasks in third (52.0%, n = 300). People aged 18–40 are at the stage of building their professional career. Therefore, more often than is the case with older employees, young employees focus on cooperation with others as a way to make progress in their career development. All the time they acquire knowledge and skills, first from educational institutions and then through work experience. Many organizations, especially mature ones, expect cooperation and teamwork from their employees and consider them to be a strong motivating factor [50,51,52]. Cooperation with others is assessed in periodic employee performance evaluations. The second area of competence selected by the respondents, work organization, seemed to be directed by a need for an organized and planned professional life, with time playing a significant role. The discussion showed that work organization was perceived as being affected by the employer’s organizational and time management skills. It seemed that another competence area, timely implementation of tasks, was affected by work organization, so it was often recognized as an employee strength necessary for job redesign.

The areas of competence declared by the respondents were compared with statements regarding their ability to redesign their professional work and the acceptance of such an action by the supervisor (

Table 8. Relationship between the cooperation-with-others competence and statements on job redesign, according to respondents, n = 296.

Contingency Table
			Which Statement Do You Think Is Consistent with Your Views?							Total
			I Can Redesign My Professional Work to Make It More Effective, but My Supervisor Does Not Allow Me to Do It	I Can Redesign My Professional Work to Make It More Effective, and My Supervisor Allows Me to Do It	I Can Redesign My Professional Work, but I Do Not Want to Do It	I Cannot Redesign My Work Even Though My Supervisor Allows Me to Do It	I Cannot Redesign My Work, and Nobody Expects That from Me	I Would not Change Anything in My Professional Work	I Can Redesign My Work to Make It More Effective, but I Would Not Like to Change Anything in My Work
Cooperation with others	Not selected by:	n	18	59	10	0	6	17	0	110
		percentage	32.1%	38.6%	37.0%	0.0%	37.5%	41.5%	0.0%	37.2%
	Selected by:	n	38	94	17	2	10	23	1	185
		percentage	67.9%	61.4%	63.0%	100.0%	62.5%	56.1%	100.0%	62.5%
	10	n	0	0	0	0	0	1	0	1
		percentage	0.0%	0.0%	0.0%	0.0%	0.0%	2.4%	0.0%	0.3%
Total		n	56	153	27	2	16	41	1	296
		percentage	100.0%	100.0%	100.0%	100.0%	100.0%	100.0%	100.0%	100.0%
Pearson’s chi-squared test
				Value			d.f.		p
Pearson’s chi-squared test				9.229			12		0.683
Likelihood Ratio				7.986			12		0.786
Linear-by-Linear Association				1.288			1		0.256
N of valid cases				296

Source: Author’s elaboration.

,

Table 9. Relationship between the work-organization competence and statements on job redesign, according to respondents, n = 296.

Contingency Table
			Which Statement Is Consistent with Your Views?							Total
			I Can Redesign My Professional Work to Make It More Effective, but My Supervisor Does Not Allow Me to Do It	I Can Redesign My Professional Work to Make It More Effective, and My Supervisor Allows Me to Do So	I Can Redesign My Professional Work, but I Do Not Want to Do It	I Cannot Redesign My Work Even Though My Supervisor Allows Me to Do It	I Cannot Redesign My Work, and Nobody Expects That from Me	I would not Change Anything in My Professional Work	I Can Redesign My Work to Make it More Effective, but I Would Not Change Anything in My Work
Work organization	Not selected by:	n	22	57	16	2	7	19	1	124
		percentage	39.3%	37.3%	59.3%	100.0%	43.8%	46.3%	100.0%	41.9%
	Selected by:	n	34	96	11	0	9	22	0	172
		percentage	60.7%	62.7%	40.7%	0.0%	56.3%	53.7%	0.0%	58.1%
Total		n	56	153	27	2	16	41	1	296
		percentage	100.0%	100.0%	100.0%	100.0%	100.0%	100.0%	100.0%	100.0%
Pearson’s chi-squared test
			Value			d.f.			p
Pearson’s chi-squared test			9.371			6			0.154
Likelihood Ratio			10.385			6			0.109
Linear-by-Linear Association			2.913			1			0.088
N of valid cases			296

Source: Author’s elaboration.

and

Table 10. Relationship between the meeting-deadlines competence and statements on job redesign, n = 296.

Contingency Table
			Which Statement Is Consistent with Your Views?							Total
			I Can Redesign My Professional Work to Make It More Effective, but My Supervisor Does Not Allow Me to Do It	I Can Redesign My Professional Work to Make It More Effective, and My Supervisor Allows Me to Do So	I Can Redesign My Professional Work, but I Do Not Want to Do It	I Cannot Redesign My Work Even Though My Supervisor Allows Me to Do It	I Cannot Redesign My Work, and Nobody Expects That from Me	I Would Not Change Anything in My Professional Work	I Can Redesign My Work to Make It More Effective, but I Would Not Change Anything in My Work
Timely task implementation	Not selected by:	n	29	74	12	1	7	16	1	140
		percentage	51.8%	48.4%	44.4%	50.0%	43.8%	39.0%	100.0%	47.3%
	Selected by:	n	27	79	15	1	9	25	0	156
		percentage	48.2%	51.6%	55.6%	50.0%	56.3%	61.0%	0.0%	52.7%
Total		n	56	153	27	2	16	41	1	296
		percentage	100.0%	100.0%	100.0%	100.0%	100.0%	100.0%	100.0%	100.0%
Pearson’s chi-squared test
			Value			d.f.			p
Pearson’s chi-squared test			2.937			6			0.817
Likelihood Ratio			3.332			6			0.766
Linear-by-Linear Association			0.102			1			0.749
N of valid cases			296

Source: Author’s elaboration.

). Thus, cooperation with others, selected by the biggest number of respondents, was most often indicated by people who were able to redesign their professional work to make it more effective, with the supervisor allowing them to do so (Table 8). Such a result revealed an important positive relationship between teamwork competences and work organization and efficiency, on the one hand, and job satisfaction on the other. There is a lot of evidence that the meaning of work affects job satisfaction, efficiency and motivation [15,52,53], which also translates into a desire to make changes. The respondents indicated lack of consent from their superiors to implement job redesign made work more effective. The discussion showed that in this case the problem was a lack of effective regulations and reluctance to make changes. This is a problem and organizations should take some action to prevent employee demotivation and loss of potential resources.

The three competence areas listed above (Table 8, Table 9 and Table 10) were selected by the vast majority of respondents as their greatest strengths. As documented by the research, activities enhancing those competences fit into sustainable development and are tools of effective management and positive psychology in a mature organization. They strengthen the organization by actively shaping the professional role of employees and their motivation. The activities may include adding, replacing or removing responsibilities specified in the job description [54]. Adapting responsibilities to tasks may also include adopting flexible timelines to complete a task, which should be part of the systematic organization of work processes. It should result in less staff fluctuation and absenteeism, greater loyalty to the organization and attachment to work. The results showed that Hypothesis 2 (H2) was partially confirmed, namely, employees were mostly able to redesign their jobs in the competence areas considered by them to be their strengths. However, the second part of the hypothesis, that the superiors did not accept such an action was not confirmed (

Table 11. Declarations of the respondents regarding the redesign of their professional work, n = 296.

		Number	Percentage of Respondents	Percentage of Responses	Cumulative Percentage
Which statement is consistent with your views?	I can redesign my professional work to make it more effective, but my supervisor does not allow me to do it	56	18.7	18.9	18.9
	I can redesign my professional work to make it more effective, and my supervisor allows me to do it	153	51.0	51.7	70.6
	I can redesign my professional work, but I do not want to do it	27	9.0	9.1	79.7
	I cannot redesign my work even though my supervisor allows me to do it	2	0.7	0.7	80.4
	I cannot redesign my work, and nobody expects that from me	16	5.3	5.4	85.8
	I would not change anything in my professional work	41	13.7	13.9	99.7
	I can redesign my work to make it more effective, but I would not change anything in my work	1	0.3	0.3	100.0
	Total	296	98.7	100.0
	No answer	4	1.3
	Total	300	100.0

Source: Author’s elaboration.

).

According to the respondents, their supervisors supported job crafting. The above attitude might result from the positive experience of mature organizations in terms of management and quality. Mature organizations are those that have already passed the stage of trial and error in management. They have a well-developed management structure, experienced managers and a proven quality control system. They are at a higher stage of development, learning all the time and less likely to make mistakes in managing people. Such organizations more often than others decide on job crafting, encourage the creativity of employees and modify management methods and structures. The process maturity of such an organization is at a high standard [55], which seems to translate into more frequent consent of superiors to job crafting implementation than in other organizations.

As many as 64.6% of respondents considered self-organization to be of great value (Problem 3—P3), while 30% of them regarded it as of average importance, 1.3% small, and for 0.7% it did not have any value. No opinion on this subject was expressed by 3.4% of the respondents (n = 297). Opinions about a high value of self-organization did not vary across age and gender, with 63.8% of women and 66.7% of men expressing so (

Table 12. Declarations of the respondents regarding the value of self-organization at work, by gender, n = 294.

Contingency Table
			Gender		Total
			Woman	Man
What is the value of self-organization of the work process for you?	high	n	113	78	191
		percentage	63.8%	66.7%	65.0%
	moderate	n	58	30	88
		percentage	32.8%	25.6%	29.9%
	low	n	1	3	4
		percentage	0.6%	2.6%	1.4%
	none	n	1	1	2
		percentage	0.6%	0.9%	0.7%
	no opinion	n	4	5	9
		percentage	2.3%	4.3%	3.1%
Total		n	177	117	294
		percentage	100.0%	100.0%	100.0%
Pearson’s chi-squared test
			Value	d.f.	p
Pearson’s chi-squared test			4.371	4	0.358
Likelihood Ratio			4.342	4	0.362
Linear-by-Linear Association			0.344	1	0.557
N of valid cases			294

Source: Author’s elaboration.

and

Table 13. Declarations of the respondents regarding the value of self-organization at work, by age, n = 296.

Contingency Table
			Age (Years)					Total
			18–21	22–25	26–30	31–40	Over 40
What is the value of self-organization at work for you?	high	n	44	93	27	22	6	192
		percentage	65.7%	59.6%	75.0%	75.9%	75.0%	64.9%
	moderate	n	23	53	7	6	0	89
		percentage	34.3%	34.0%	19.4%	20.7%	0.0%	30.1%
	low	n	0	2	1	0	0	3
		percentage	0.0%	1.3%	2.8%	0.0%	0.0%	1.0%
	none	n	0	2	0	0	0	2
		percentage	0.0%	1.3%	0.0%	0.0%	0.0%	0.7%
	no opinion	n	0	6	1	1	2	10
		percentage	0.0%	3.8%	2.8%	3.4%	25.0%	3.4%
Total		n	67	156	36	29	8	296
		percentage	100.0%	100.0%	100.0%	100.0%	100.0%	100.0%
Pearson’s chi-squared test
			Value		d.f.		p
Pearson’s chi-squared test			25.247		16		0.066
Likelihood Ratio			25.051		16		0.069
Linear-by-Linear Association			0.465		1		0.495
N of valid cases			296

Source: Author’s elaboration.

). This result was not surprising. Self-organization is important, because work requires proper planning of tasks, consultation, and assumptions made for the implementation of tasks, including, of course, creating schedules and estimating costs [56]. Many European authors stress the importance of self-organization and quote four elements of employee participation: (1) different forms of participation reinforce each other; (2) major changes in employment require an innovative approach to participation; (3) appropriate conditions are required for effective participation; (4) trade unions remain a key foundation for promoting participation [57]. All these results confirmed Hypothesis 3.

Most managers in a mature organization take into account the opinion of employees. This was confirmed by as many as 71.2% of respondents (n = 299). In addition, more than half of them (57.5%, n = 299) stated that managers were fair in the assessments of their work. This is a very good signal for the implementation of job crafting, not only in mature organizations. In mature organizations the quality of management processes is at a high level, including control processes. Among other elements of maturity, there is a system of supervision with elimination of competency gaps [36]. It could be assumed that the opinion on the fairness of superiors in employee evaluation was related to a properly functioning control system in mature organizations. The perception of employee performance by the superiors is strongly influenced by the latter’s competence and scope of management. It can be concluded that in such organizations there is a high level of managerial competence, and the freedom in decision making is greater than in immature organizations.

Despite the high level of self-organization, the respondents did not have full freedom to implement job redesign (Problem 4—P4). Among the 11 areas (

Table 14. Respondents’ freedom to make changes at work, n = 300.

Multiple Answers		Answers		Percentage of Observations
		n	Percentage
Indicate the fields of individualization at work where you have the freedom to make changes	form and duration of the employment contract	72	8.5%	24.2%
	working time	143	16.8%	48.0%
	workplace	55	6.5%	18.5%
	task timeline (start, end)	103	12.1%	34.6%
	scope of work	46	5.4%	15.4%
	work process	95	11.2%	31.9%
	work organisation	162	19.1%	54.4%
	selection of co-workers	56	6.6%	18.8%
	form of remuneration	35	4.1%	11.7%
	social benefits	23	2.7%	7.7%
	other	3	0.4%	1.0%
	I don’t have the freedom to make changes	56	6.6%	18.8%
Total		849	100.0%	284.9%

Source: Author’s elaboration.

), work organization was indicated in the first place (54.4%, n = 300), followed by working time (48%, n = 300). Contrary to expectations, other areas were selected less often. In addition, 18.8% of respondents said that they did not have the freedom to make changes. This indicates that a recovery program should be implemented. It can be assumed that such indications are a response to the needs of entrepreneurs, especially in the field of improving work organization and efficient time management. Most often, the search to improve productivity is a part of such activities [1,2,3,4]. In addition, employees treat them as a predictor of managerial competences [58], which can have a positive impact on their careers. The above results confirmed Hypothesis 4 (H4).

5. Discussion

Job crafting was first studied and described by Amy Wrzesniewski and Jane E. Dutton [21]. According to the literature, job crafting is about employees adapting and remodeling their work. It also means bringing the boundary of the work closer to the employee so that it becomes more involving and consistent with their potential and with the organization’s strategy [59]. According to another view, job crafting consists of proactive behavior and individual initiatives [18,21]. Its positive consequences have been widely studied and recognized by many authors [10]. The present research results indicated that it was important to introduce co-design principles by involving employees in modeling their work. Other authors have also come to similar conclusions [60].

The complexity and interdependencies of job crafting processes should be taken into account by every employer, not only in mature organizations, where employee opinions are analyzed on an ongoing basis and are often a generator of positive changes. It can be observed that organizations that give high rank to activities aimed at work environment quality and working conditions in their strategies of action have proactive attitudes towards work [23]. In job crafting, one should also remember about the synergistic effect, having a big impact on the ability to generate creative solutions. The synergistic effect in teamwork facilitates and accelerates the processes of innovative changes, which is an additional contribution to the development of the entire organization [61] (p. 1903). If an organization is mature in management, it supports the synergy of employees and managers, encouraging proactive activities in employee management and job crafting, to which experienced employees are engaged. In job crafting, employees transform the nature of the interactions they have with others and create and change responsibilities [59].

Some researchers point to a positive relationship between job satisfaction and work engagement on the one hand and productivity on the other [10]. The results of the present research indicated a high degree of job satisfaction among the employees of mature organizations. The age group of respondents who liked their work most was 26–30 years of age, followed by those in the 22–25 years of age group. It could be concluded that if a mature organization invests in employees at the beginning of their careers, it boosts their potential for further development. With positive emotions at work and managemental acceptance of their professional efforts, employees are more likely to increase the requirements when redesigning their work. Some studies have confirmed that the above attitude has an impact on work performance [62]. No or few gender differences in determinants of job satisfaction were found [63], with similar patterns of relationship between work aspects and job satisfaction for both sexes [64]. The present research also showed that employees of mature organizations recognize the need for job crafting, especially in the areas of work organization, working time and task timeline. Such an attitude means taking full advantage of the professional competences of employees to model the organization and improve working conditions.

Matching professional work and pace of work with employee personal and professional competences is the basis of the co-design process where the cooperation of superiors with employees plays the main role. Effective cooperation translates into employee loyalty, and this, in turn, affects work efficiency and the long-term financial situation of an organization [22]. It is believed that the process of cooperation between the employer and the employee should be clearly explained at the stage of job recruitment. The professional expectations of both parties should be clearly articulated and agreed on and recorded in the employee’s personal documents. Cooperation between the parties (employer–employee) should be continued and modified according to current and future tasks, starting from the adaptation stage, through the entire work process to its completion. For this purpose, periodic employee assessment can be used, which can be expanded with information on job crafting skills and the level of their application by the employee. It helps to build human capital and to promote sustainable development.

It is important to identify the mechanisms responsible for the sustainable development of a mature organization. A sustainable enterprise is one that contributes to sustainable development while offering economic, social and environmental benefits [14]. Many organizations maintain business sustainability to meet environmental, social and economic requirements in order to ensure responsible and long-term success. To achieve this, companies must make optimal use of their resources [65] (p. 144) and identify individualization fields.

Companies should indicate fields of individualization in professional work, in which employees can have the freedom to make changes [22,66]. Through the process of individualization [36], individuals assume a new role as coordinators of their personal career. They often actively shape the way they work and engage in job redesign. According to many authors, job redesign is commonly seen as shaping or forming one’s professional role [67,68]. Thus, it also fits into the individualization of professional work [22,59].

In other words, job crafting can also be treated as individual job redesign. The research results indicated that the respondents had the freedom of job crafting in the following areas: work organization, working time and task timeline. These were followed by the work process, the form and time of employment contract, the selection of co-workers, the place of work, the scope of work, the form of remuneration and social benefits. The research results showed that supervisors eagerly accept job crafting. For most of the respondents, regardless of gender and age, this process was of great value. Their positive attitude might result from the experience of mature organizations in terms of management and quality standards. The level of maturity of processes in such organizations is high [55], which positively affects the involvement of employees in job crafting. What is required in every organization is cooperation with others, work organization and timely implementation of tasks because these are all connected to teamwork [13,50,51]. On the other hand, the perception of work is strongly influenced by competences of the employees and the superiors’ scope of management. It can be concluded that in mature organizations there is a high level of managerial competence, and the freedom to make changes seems to be greater than in other organizations.

It should be added that, despite the high rank of self-organization, the respondents did not have full freedom to make changes in job redesign. Of the eleven areas work organization was indicated in the first place and working time in the second, but surprisingly, the subjects did not have much of an impact in other areas. In addition, almost 20% believed that they did not have the freedom to make changes. Such indications in a mature organization should trigger repair programs. Other authors [60] came to similar conclusions regarding the freedom to make changes in work organizations. It could be concluded from the research that more often in this area than in others, employees were given more freedom to redesign their work. It is worth noting that newly created Society 5.0 aims particularly at freeing resources and human environments from constraints. It is human-centered, ensuring everyone’s well-being. In Society 5.0, also called super-smart society, people are supposed to lead creative lives and set the rules and standards that govern data processing. Entry to Society 5.0 depends on cooperation with others, which is the basis for creating innovations at every level, also in mature organizations. There is no innovation without cooperation between business and science. The present research fits into Society 5.0, where the basic values of Citizen 5.0 are openness and innovation.

6. Conclusions

Job crafting in a mature organization can be a source of many benefits to both employees and the company. Although it is a relatively new approach to work, it is increasingly studied empirically. It affects the elements of professional performance which better suit the contractor and are more efficient. In the management of a mature organization, the identification of employee competence areas is necessary in order to create conditions to implement job crafting. This research showed that cooperation, work organization and timely implementation of tasks were seen as strengths by most of the respondents. The survey was also used to determine the level of job satisfaction, which is inextricably linked to motivation. It turned out that the vast majority of employees of mature organizations liked their jobs and were eager to go to work. Satisfaction with the fact that they worked in their current organizations was expressed by over 65% of them, and about 80% of respondents liked what they did. This positive attitude could translate into a high level of self-organization, which is one of the basic elements of the job crafting process. According to the survey, a majority of managers in a mature organization took the opinions of employees about work processes into account. More than half of the respondents thought that managers were fair in the assessments of their work. This might be a promising signal for the development of job crafting, not only in mature organizations. However, despite the high level of self-organization, the respondents did not have full freedom to make changes in job redesign. Of eleven areas, work organization was selected as the most important, with working time in the second place. Contrary to expectations, the subjects did not have an impact on other areas. A lesser value was attached to form and time of the employment contract, place and scope of work, work process, selection of co-workers, form of remuneration, social benefits and others. Such indications should give impetus to the implementation of recovery programs.

It should be noted that job crafting is a method that puts a person in first place. It makes work meaningful, based on what things matter most to employees. It is part of the process of combining work tasks with personal responsibility. Even with the smallest amount of change, job crafting can be used by anyone and in any environment. It can be structured into three complementary pairs: job satisfaction and positive attitude, competence and job redesign, self-organization and readiness for change. Studies show that after implementing job redesign, it is no longer necessary to frequently modify job responsibilities and work processes. Additionally, the time dedicated to professional development is shortened, work efficiency increases and employee fluctuations decrease. Yet it is believed that job crafting in the future will not replace the obligations of the employer. Rather, it offers additional value in supporting a mature organization.

Person—environment fit theory argues that employees leave an organization when there is no match between their skills and needs on the one hand, and the demands and resources of the organization on the other [8,69,70]. This article postulates that if employees want to get a sustainable job, they should engage in job design as a way to achieve a work-related sense of coherence. Bearing the above in mind, the contribution of this research manifests itself in filling the research gap in the identification of competence areas of employees in job crafting and verifying their freedom to make work-related changes in a mature organization. At the same time, the present research discussed job crafting models and included a review of literature in the field of classical job crafting. Additionally, the practical contribution of the paper consists in presenting solutions aimed at the employee. The solutions could also be related to organizational culture, employee performance assessment and to organizational and management methods. The results of the research indicated the potential benefits of employee participation in decision making to organizations, which was also confirmed in the company owned by the author. Similarly, being proactive at work is inherently innovative and creative [11,12,13].

However, the proposals resulting from the research are not without limitations. First of all, it must be admitted that the literature presents many approaches to job crafting, which makes it difficult to compare and interpret some of them. In addition, the classical approach to job crafting has been criticized, which, of course, results in new models. In effect, organizations abandon their previous efforts and wait for a proven, ready-made model to adopt in their activities. Secondly, there is a large number of qualitative studies, with a lack of sufficient quantitative research. Thirdly, due to the self-assessment of all research variables by employees, an error cannot be completely excluded although the statistical interpretation of the results did not show any. Fourthly, job crafting is a complex process and strongly dependent on mutual and supervisory support. There may be factors other than those related to the employee, and they might play a key role in the implementation of job crafting. The job crafting assessment process is complex because it goes through many stages of data collection (especially workplace evaluation) and requires advanced knowledge, skills and proper attitudes. Fifthly, working conditions and the level of maturity of management processes, constitute a limitation in an organization because the results of job crafting directly depend on the conditions in which the process takes place.

Future research may attempt to evaluate employee participation in solving work-related problems from the point of view of colleagues and supervisors. It is worth focusing on the relationship between employee feedback and job crafting, also taking into account individual and situational factors. In further research, it would be worth answering Tims and Bakker’s request [18] that greater attention be paid to the role of superiors in shaping employees’ attitudes.

It is worth noting that subjective well-being and job satisfaction may be independent from each other [71]. In order to better capture the subjective well-being of employees in the workplace, it seems necessary to examine both job-related affective well-being and job satisfaction.

The results of the research can be used to improve management of employees and to focus on modeling the sustainable development of human resources in a mature organization. They are also an important starting point for extended research.