Assessing the Loss Given Default of Bank Loans Using the Hybrid Algorithms Multi-Stage Model
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Literature Review on LGD
2.1. Theoretical Development of LGD
2.2. LGD Modelling
3. Methodology
3.1. Credit Dataset
3.2. Data Pre-Processing
3.3. Model Framework
3.4. Related Algorithms
3.4.1. Unsupervised ML
3.4.2. Supervised ML
3.4.3. Class Imbalance Handling Techniques
3.4.4. Performance Evaluation Metrics
3.4.5. Shapley Additive Explanations (SHAP)
4. Experimental Results and Discussion
4.1. Dataset Space
4.2. Performance Evaluation of First-Stage Classification
4.3. Performance Evaluation of the Second-Stage Classification
4.4. LGD Prediction Evaluation for the Third Stage
4.5. Robustness Tests
4.6. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
1 | For access and download of information on the SBA (Small Business Administration) Credit Dataset, please see the link https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/mirbektoktogaraev/should-this-loan-be-approved-or-denied (accessed on 17 March 2020). The file title of the dataset is “Should This Loan be Approved or Denied?”. |
2 | The ROC curve is a visual representation of the classifier performance at different thresholds using the True Positive Rate (TPR), which measures the proportion of positive category samples that are correctly classified as positive, as the vertical coordinate, and the False Positive Rate (FPR), which measures the proportion of negative category samples that are incorrectly classified as positive, as the horizontal coordinate. |
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Dataset | Total | Non-Defaults | Defaults | Defaults Ratio |
---|---|---|---|---|
Bank 1 | 51,827 | 31,778 | 20,049 | 38.68% |
Bank 2 | 20,433 | 11,526 | 8907 | 43.59% |
Bank 3 | 17,643 | 6656 | 10,987 | 62.27% |
Bank 1 | Bank 2 | Bank 3 | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Variables | Mean | SD | Min | Max | Mean | SD | Min | Max | Mean | SD | Min | Max |
NoEmp | 4.948 | 7.044 | 0.000 | 100 | 5.825 | 7.477 | 0.000 | 92 | 3.452 | 5.230 | 0.000 | 100 |
UrbanRural | 0.925 | 0.263 | 0.000 | 1.000 | 0.860 | 0.347 | 0.000 | 1.000 | 0.932 | 0.252 | 0.000 | 1.000 |
NewExist | 0.764 | 0.424 | 0.000 | 1.000 | 0.964 | 0.186 | 0.000 | 1.000 | 0.649 | 0.477 | 0.000 | 1.000 |
Createjob | 0.651 | 2.159 | 0.000 | 50 | 1.041 | 2.288 | 0.000 | 50 | 1.859 | 3.108 | 0.000 | 50 |
Protion | 0.503 | 0.030 | 0.350 | 0.955 | 0.513 | 0.065 | 0.500 | 0.900 | 0.811 | 0.107 | 0.200 | 1.000 |
isFranchise | 0.010 | 0.102 | 0.000 | 1.000 | 0.009 | 0.094 | 0.000 | 1.000 | 0.007 | 0.084 | 0.000 | 1.000 |
Retainedjob | 4.554 | 6.894 | 0.000 | 100 | 4.943 | 7.114 | 0.000 | 90 | 3.362 | 5.190 | 0.000 | 100 |
DisbursementGross | 52,986 | 73,230 | 4000 | 2,293,500 | 5.825 | 7.477 | 0.000 | 92 | 67,338 | 223,261 | 4729 | 4,200,000 |
Real_Estate | 0.001 | 0.034 | 0.000 | 1.000 | 0.000 | 0.007 | 0.000 | 1.000 | 0.024 | 0.154 | 0.000 | 1.000 |
Recession | 0.030 | 0.169 | 0.000 | 1.000 | 0.018 | 0.131 | 0.000 | 1.000 | 0.146 | 0.353 | 0.000 | 1.000 |
LGD | 0.329 | 0.436 | 0.000 | 1.000 | 0.306 | 0.383 | 0.000 | 1.000 | 0.470 | 0.400 | 0.000 | 1.000 |
Type | Measure | Description |
---|---|---|
Classification | AUC | The area enclosed with the coordinate axis under the Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) curve2. |
Accuracy | The proportion of correctly classified samples. | |
Precision | The proportion of the truly classified samples to the total number of samples assigned to that class for a class. | |
Recall | The proportion of true classified samples over the total of samples that belong to that class for a class. | |
F1-score | This metric combines precision and recall by harmonizing averages and penalizes extreme values. | |
Regression | MSE | Square of the difference between the true value and predicted value, which is then summed and averaged. |
RMSE | MSE’s open square root. | |
EV | The variance score of the explanatory regression model, which takes values in the range [0, 1]. | |
MAE | Average of the absolute errors. | |
Coefficient of determination. It is usually between 0 and 1 and reflects how accurately the model fits the data. |
Clustering | Model | ACC | Precision | Recall | F1 | AUC | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Individual Models | no clustering | LR | 0.6025 | 0.6355 | 0.2556 | 0.3645 | 0.5731 |
DT | 0.5958 | 0.5573 | 0.4570 | 0.5022 | 0.5947 | ||
RF | 0.5999 | 0.5605 | 0.4775 | 0.5157 | 0.6180 | ||
GBDT | 0.6295 | 0.6269 | 0.4186 | 0.5020 | 0.6694 | ||
XGBoost | 0.6274 | 0.6157 | 0.4387 | 0.5123 | 0.6697 | ||
MLP | 0.6265 | 0.6120 | 0.4449 | 0.5152 | 0.6641 | ||
LightGBM | 0.6298 | 0.6201 | 0.4389 | 0.5140 | 0.6718 | ||
K-means | clstering 1 | LR | 0.6052 | 0.6348 | 0.284 | 0.3925 | 0.6077 |
DT | 0.5968 | 0.5609 | 0.4691 | 0.5110 | 0.5936 | ||
RF | 0.6003 | 0.5623 | 0.4948 | 0.5264 | 0.6193 | ||
GBDT | 0.6331 | 0.6316 | 0.4389 | 0.5179 | 0.6743 | ||
XGBoost | 0.6338 | 0.6275 | 0.4539 | 0.5268 | 0.6744 | ||
MLP | 0.6304 | 0.6224 | 0.4493 | 0.5219 | 0.6699 | ||
LightGBM | 0.6341 | 0.6265 | 0.4585 | 0.5295 | 0.6773 | ||
clustering 2 | LR | 0.6404 | 0.6386 | 0.1045 | 0.1797 | 0.6161 | |
DT | 0.5788 | 0.4375 | 0.4142 | 0.4255 | 0.5580 | ||
RF | 0.5958 | 0.4561 | 0.3787 | 0.4138 | 0.5913 | ||
GBDT | 0.6263 | 0.5137 | 0.1479 | 0.2297 | 0.6157 | ||
XGBoost | 0.5854 | 0.4358 | 0.3412 | 0.3827 | 0.5902 | ||
MLP | 0.6397 | 0.641 | 0.0986 | 0.1709 | 0.6199 | ||
LightGBM | 0.6018 | 0.4589 | 0.3195 | 0.3767 | 0.6055 | ||
SOM | clustering 1 | LR | 0.6046 | 0.6403 | 0.2711 | 0.381 | 0.5982 |
DT | 0.5931 | 0.5563 | 0.4605 | 0.5039 | 0.5854 | ||
RF | 0.5989 | 0.5619 | 0.4816 | 0.5187 | 0.6135 | ||
GBDT | 0.6296 | 0.6233 | 0.4416 | 0.5169 | 0.6691 | ||
XGBoost | 0.6274 | 0.6153 | 0.4528 | 0.5217 | 0.6699 | ||
MLP | 0.6254 | 0.6065 | 0.4701 | 0.5297 | 0.6633 | ||
LightGBM | 0.6313 | 0.6228 | 0.4522 | 0.524 | 0.6718 | ||
clustering 2 | LR | 0.6294 | 0.5714 | 0.1265 | 0.2072 | 0.5911 | |
DT | 0.5866 | 0.4571 | 0.4282 | 0.4422 | 0.5657 | ||
RF | 0.5866 | 0.4545 | 0.4015 | 0.4264 | 0.5828 | ||
GBDT | 0.6145 | 0.4886 | 0.1557 | 0.2362 | 0.5967 | ||
XGBoost | 0.5931 | 0.4558 | 0.326 | 0.3801 | 0.5917 | ||
MLP | 0.6238 | 0.5321 | 0.1411 | 0.2231 | 0.5895 | ||
LightGBM | 0.6071 | 0.4804 | 0.3285 | 0.3902 | 0.5998 |
Clustering | Model | ACC | Precision | Recall | F1 | AUC | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
ROS + Individual Models | no clustering | LR | 0.6597 | 0.6059 | 0.9304 | 0.7339 | 0.7105 |
DT | 0.8240 | 0.7791 | 0.9085 | 0.8388 | 0.8803 | ||
RF | 0.8233 | 0.7753 | 0.9147 | 0.8393 | 0.8934 | ||
GBDT | 0.6998 | 0.6565 | 0.8485 | 0.7403 | 0.7662 | ||
XGBoost | 0.7568 | 0.7147 | 0.8615 | 0.7813 | 0.8342 | ||
MLP | 0.6845 | 0.6488 | 0.8159 | 0.7228 | 0.7410 | ||
LightGBM | 0.7257 | 0.6795 | 0.8631 | 0.7603 | 0.7978 | ||
ROS + K-means | clustering 1 | LR | 0.6556 | 0.6052 | 0.9033 | 0.7248 | 0.7138 |
DT | 0.8248 | 0.7761 | 0.9148 | 0.8398 | 0.8807 | ||
RF | 0.8215 | 0.7704 | 0.918 | 0.8377 | 0.8903 | ||
GBDT | 0.6999 | 0.6541 | 0.8537 | 0.7407 | 0.7662 | ||
XGBoost | 0.7582 | 0.7130 | 0.8675 | 0.7827 | 0.8350 | ||
MLP | 0.6800 | 0.6392 | 0.8319 | 0.7230 | 0.7374 | ||
LightGBM | 0.7265 | 0.6770 | 0.8704 | 0.7617 | 0.7951 | ||
clustering 2 | LR | 0.6156 | 0.5908 | 0.8908 | 0.7104 | 0.6414 | |
DT | 0.8786 | 0.8340 | 0.9620 | 0.8935 | 0.9061 | ||
RF | 0.8794 | 0.8315 | 0.9684 | 0.8947 | 0.9588 | ||
GBDT | 0.7429 | 0.7113 | 0.8655 | 0.7809 | 0.8188 | ||
XGBoost | 0.8333 | 0.7906 | 0.932 | 0.8555 | 0.9172 | ||
MLP | 0.6993 | 0.6775 | 0.8244 | 0.7438 | 0.7656 | ||
LightGBM | 0.8057 | 0.7732 | 0.8956 | 0.8299 | 0.8940 | ||
ROS + SOM | clustering 1 | LR | 0.6521 | 0.602 | 0.9074 | 0.7238 | 0.6875 |
DT | 0.8773 | 0.8371 | 0.9383 | 0.8848 | 0.9055 | ||
RF | 0.8847 | 0.8361 | 0.9584 | 0.8931 | 0.9575 | ||
GBDT | 0.7323 | 0.7033 | 0.8081 | 0.7520 | 0.8165 | ||
XGBoost | 0.8429 | 0.8168 | 0.8859 | 0.8500 | 0.9228 | ||
MLP | 0.6871 | 0.6556 | 0.7946 | 0.7184 | 0.7538 | ||
LightGBM | 0.8139 | 0.7877 | 0.8617 | 0.8231 | 0.8941 | ||
clustering 2 | LR | 0.6628 | 0.6114 | 0.9001 | 0.7282 | 0.7134 | |
DT | 0.8190 | 0.7731 | 0.9048 | 0.8338 | 0.8773 | ||
RF | 0.8160 | 0.7668 | 0.9102 | 0.8324 | 0.8834 | ||
GBDT | 0.6970 | 0.6522 | 0.8490 | 0.7377 | 0.7638 | ||
XGBoost | 0.7542 | 0.7100 | 0.8625 | 0.7789 | 0.8311 | ||
MLP | 0.6808 | 0.6337 | 0.8625 | 0.7306 | 0.7374 | ||
LightGBM | 0.7244 | 0.6772 | 0.8614 | 0.7583 | 0.7942 |
The Best Classification Model | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Route | First stage | Second stage | Third stage | MSE | RMSE | MAE | EV | |
Route 1 | LightGBM | ROS + RF | OLS | 0.0968 | 0.3111 | 0.1838 | 0.4563 | 0.6106 |
Route 2 | K-means (clustering 1 + LightGBM) and (clustering 2 + MLP) | ROS+ RF | 0.0968 | 0.3111 | 0.1837 | 0.4566 | 0.6106 | |
SOM clustering + LightGBM | ROS+ RF | 0.0978 | 0.3128 | 0.1849 | 0.4508 | 0.6075 | ||
Route 3 | LightGBM | ROS + K-means clustering + RF | 0.0969 | 0.3112 | 0.1838 | 0.4562 | 0.6104 | |
LightGBM | ROS + SOM clustering + RF | 0.0967 | 0.3109 | 0.1836 | 0.4573 | 0.6115 | ||
Route 4 | K-means (clustering 1 + LightGBM) and (clustering 2 + MLP) | ROS + K-means clustering + RF | 0.0968 | 0.3111 | 0.1837 | 0.4566 | 0.6104 | |
K-means (clustering 1 + LightGBM) and (clustering 2 + MLP) | ROS + SOM clustering + RF | 0.0966 | 0.3108 | 0.1835 | 0.4577 | 0.6115 | ||
SOM clustering + LightGBM | ROS + K-means clustering + RF | 0.0979 | 0.3128 | 0.1849 | 0.4506 | 0.6073 | ||
SOM clustering + LightGBM | ROS + SOM clustering + RF | 0.0977 | 0.3125 | 0.1847 | 0.4518 | 0.6084 |
The Best Classification Model | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Route | First stage | Second stage | Third stage | MSE | RMSE | MAE | EV | |
Route 1 | LightGBM | ROS + RF | OLS | 0.0993 | 0.3151 | 0.1858 | 0.4428 | 0.6015 |
Route 2 | K-means (clustering 1 + LightGBM) and (clustering 2 + MLP) | ROS + RF | 0.0983 | 0.3136 | 0.1848 | 0.4479 | 0.6042 | |
SOM (clustering 1 + LightGBM) and (clustering 2 + MLP) | ROS + RF | 0.0992 | 0.3150 | 0.1859 | 0.443 | 0.6017 | ||
Route 3 | Individual Models | ROS + K-means clustering + RF | 0.0995 | 0.3155 | 0.186 | 0.4412 | 0.6006 | |
Individual Models | ROS + SOM clustering + RF | 0.0992 | 0.315 | 0.1858 | 0.4429 | 0.6018 | ||
Route 4 | K-means (clustering 1 + LightGBM) and (clustering 2 + MLP) | ROS + K-means clustering + RF | 0.0986 | 0.314 | 0.1851 | 0.4464 | 0.6032 | |
K-means (clustering 1 + LightGBM) and (clustering 2 + MLP) | ROS + SOM clustering + RF | 0.0983 | 0.3136 | 0.1848 | 0.4480 | 0.6045 | ||
SOM (clustering 1 + LightGBM) and (clustering 2 + MLP) | ROS + K-means clustering + RF | 0.0995 | 0.3154 | 0.1861 | 0.4414 | 0.6007 | ||
SOM (clustering 1 + LightGBM) and (clustering 2 + MLP) | ROS + SOM clustering + RF | 0.0992 | 0.315 | 0.1859 | 0.4430 | 0.602 |
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Fan, M.; Wu, T.-H.; Zhao, Q. Assessing the Loss Given Default of Bank Loans Using the Hybrid Algorithms Multi-Stage Model. Systems 2023, 11, 505. https://doi.org/10.3390/systems11100505
Fan M, Wu T-H, Zhao Q. Assessing the Loss Given Default of Bank Loans Using the Hybrid Algorithms Multi-Stage Model. Systems. 2023; 11(10):505. https://doi.org/10.3390/systems11100505
Chicago/Turabian StyleFan, Mengting, Tsung-Hsien Wu, and Qizhi Zhao. 2023. "Assessing the Loss Given Default of Bank Loans Using the Hybrid Algorithms Multi-Stage Model" Systems 11, no. 10: 505. https://doi.org/10.3390/systems11100505