Next Article in Journal
Investigating the Temporal Effects of Thermal Stress on Corticosterone Release and Growth in Toad Tadpoles
Previous Article in Journal
Druggable Molecular Networks in BRCA1/BRCA2-Mutated Breast Cancer
 
 
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Seasonal Occurrence and Biodiversity of Insects in an Arid Ecosystem: An Ecological Study of the King Abdulaziz Royal Reserve, Saudi Arabia

by
Abdulrahaman S. Alzahrani
1,
Moutaman Ali Kehail
2,
Sara A. Almannaa
1,
Areej H. Alkhalifa
3,
Abdulaziz M. Alqahtani
1,
Mohammed H. Altalhi
1,
Hussein H. Alkhamis
2,
Abdullah M. Alowaifeer
1,* and
Abdulwahed Fahad Alrefaei
4,*
1
The King Abdulaziz Royal Reserve (KARR), Riyadh 12213, Saudi Arabia
2
Green Sustainability Company for Environmental Services (GSCES), Riyadh 13326, Saudi Arabia
3
Department of Biology, College of Science, Princess Nourah Bint Abdulrahman University, Riyadh 11671, Saudi Arabia
4
Department of Zoology, College of Science, King Saud University, P.O. Box 2455, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Biology 2025, 14(3), 254; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology14030254
Submission received: 28 January 2025 / Revised: 27 February 2025 / Accepted: 28 February 2025 / Published: 2 March 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Zoology)

Simple Summary

This study investigates the seasonal variation in insect biodiversity at the King Abdulaziz Royal Reserve (KARR) from January to November 2023. The researchers used active and passive methods to assess biodiversity and insect density across 68 randomly selected sites. A total of 6320 insects from six orders were identified, including species from Blattodea, Coleoptera, Hemiptera, Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera, and Orthoptera. The results showed that insect biodiversity was relatively the lowest in winter and autumn, while density peaked in spring and summer.

Abstract

Each living organism thrives best in a habitat that provides optimal conditions for flourishing, reproduction, and distribution within a certain area. This study aims to investigate the seasonal variation in insect biodiversity across different sites of the King Abdulaziz Royal Reserve (KARR), located between E 45.19–46.57 and N 25.15–27.41, with a focus on assessing biodiversity, density and seasonal variation using active and passive methods, over the period from January to November 2023. A total of 68 sites within the study area were randomly selected for trap placement. The trapped specimens were labeled and transferred to plastic bottles half filled with 70% ethanol and then taken to the laboratory for counting and identification. Identification was based on morphological characteristics and appropriate identification keys, with the assistance of entomological expertise, and a list of local species. Simpson’s diversity index (D) was also calculated. The results revealed that, out of 6320 trapped insects, species were identified across six orders: Blattodea (termites), represented by 2 families and 2 species; Coleoptera, comprising 12 families and 38 species, of which 11 belonged to the family Tenebrionidae; Hemiptera, comprising 7 families and 9 species, 3 of which belonged to the family Lygaeidae; Hymenoptera, comprising 5 families and 15 species, 9 of which were from Formicidae; Lepidoptera, comprising 2 families and 3 species; and Orthoptera, comprising 3 families and 7 species, 4 of which were from family Acrididae. Insect biodiversity and abundance were observed to be relatively low during the winter (January–March) and autumn (October–November) seasons, while relatively higher densities were recorded during spring (May) and summer (August–September).

1. Introduction

In 2018, it was estimated that approximately one million insect species had been described and identified, accounting for more than 50% of all eukaryotes. The predicted number of new species described each year is around 20.000. The estimated total number of insect species, including those not yet identified, is believed to be 5.5 million, representing about 80% of all eukaryotes. Insects are classified into 24 orders. In terms of the number of species, Coleoptera (beetles: 386.500), Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths: 157.338), Diptera (flies and mosquitoes: 155.477), Hymenoptera (ants, bees, and wasps: 116.861), Hemiptera (true bugs: 103.590), and Orthoptera (locusts, grasshoppers, and crickets 23.855) are the dominant orders, while Mantophasmatodea (15) is the least abundant [1].
It was reported that some insect populations are in decline in their abundance, biomass, and species richness in many studied areas, while other insect populations are not. Generally, each insect species is affected by changes in the environment in different ways compared to other species (depending on the success of adaptation to survive). The declines of insect abundance have been attributed to reasons such as habitat loss (urbanization), pesticide (insecticides and herbicides) use on crops, and invasive species, which compete with the indigenous species [2]. During 2017, about 66 insect species were recorded as extinction species [3] all around the world, and many other insect species were documented by IUCN (the International Union for Conservation of Nature). This includes 97 species of Odanata, 91 species of Orthoptera, 72 species of Coleoptera, 51 species of Lepidoptera, 18 species of Hymenoptera, and 7 species of Blattodea [4]. Nowadays, more than 166.000 species of both fauna and flora populations have been documented within IUCN red list [5].
A nature reserve is a protected ecological area, mainly for fauna and flora [6]. It is also known as wildlife refuge, wildlife sanctuary, or nature conservation area. These areas usually fall into IUCN in different categories in addition to the local laws [7]. The establishment of nature reserves is an ecological way to protect biodiversity. It is also considered an effective method to protect the ecological environment from human activities that disturb habitat quality [8]. The assessment of biotic and abiotic components will help for planning different conservation scenarios [9] in the context of systematic conservation to form a resilient ecological system [10].
The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) occupies an area of about 2.2 million km2. This area is characterized by different ecological systems, but it is classified as arid and semiarid. There are various ecosystems including valley, hills, deserts (rocky and sandy), and coastal areas that provide the optimal conditions for different fauna and flora to flourish. The ecological system of KSA hosts about 78 species of mammals, 550 species of birds, 130 species of reptiles, 7 species of amphibians, and an undefined number of fish, arthropods, and other invertebrates [11]. In 2018, the King Abdulaziz Royal Nature Reserve (KARR) was established. It occupies an area of 28.345 km2 (about 13% of KSA total area). It represents all the ecosystem of the KSA, except the coastal one. The KARR is working within its ability, under laws and legislations set by IUCN organization, to conserve biomass and to assess biodiversity [12].
The evolution of soil arthropod diversity in desert areas has been studied using both active and passive trapping techniques [13]. Arid conditions are driven by plant size, plant morphological characters, soil fertilization, plant nutritional content, and prey–predator interactions [14].
In arid areas, climate change (e.g., the elevation of temperature) increases the frequency of droughts and fluctuates rainfall pattern and rates, which in turn directly affects living organisms such as insect and plant populations. The unstable and unpredicted weather conditions may alter the normal physiological process of all living taxa. Temperature shifts may alter the biochemical process (enzyme activities) within insects, and consequently deteriorate fertility, feeding patterns, survival rates, population dynamics, and dispersal patterns, and accordingly, change and modify the abundance, distribution, densities, and lifecycle of insects. The effect of climate change on insect ecology may disrupt pollination and hence, food security [15] and crop yield [16], because crop production depends mainly on climate variables and insect pests.
A similar study conducted at Rawdhat Khorium National Park (25°23’ N, and 47°17’ E), Northern Riyadh, Central Saudi Arabia, was conducted in order to determine the population of beetles in that area. The collection methods involved pitfall, UV-light, Malaise traps, net sweeping, beating vegetation, vacuuming, and hand-picking. The results of this study show that Tenebrionidae and Scarabeidae were the most abundant families [17].
Because of a lack of records in the KARR about the exact components of flora and fauna species, in addition to the needs for constructing base-line data, this study examined the insect occurrence and biodiversity in association with seasonal variation (spatio-temporal) during January–November 2023. The study was also interested in reflecting the presence and distribution of beneficial (pollinators, decomposers, and predators), and pest insects in order to assist in designing management plans within the study area. The study also constructs baseline data involving other categories such as non-insect arthropods, various classes of vertebrates, and plants.

2. Material and Methods

2.1. Study Area

The King Abdulaziz Royal Nature Reserve (KARR) covers an area of 28.345 km2, located between the coordinates E 45.19–46.57 and N 25.15–27.41. It encompasses parts of the Riyadh Province and the Eastern Province, two of the thirteen administrative Provinces of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA). The reserve is divided into two parts: the southern and central regions, located in the northeastern area of Riyadh Province, cover a total area of 15.892 km2; meanwhile, the northern part of the reserve, known as As-Summan, situated in the northwestern part of the Eastern Province, covers an area of 12.436 km2. The central and southern areas of KARR, specifically Al-Tanahat, Al-Khafs, Noura, and the Al-Dahna Desert, are part of the eastern geological section of the Riyadh Province, known as the eastern portion of the Najd Plateau. The southern portion of KARR represents approximately 5.9% of the total area of the Arabian Shelf. The geological history of this region dates back to prehistoric eras. The study area is in a region characterized by a semi-arid to arid desert climate and the climatic factors (temperature, rainfall, relative humidity, and daylight) were obtained from the National Center for Meteorology KSA during the study period (Table 1).
Vegetation cover consists primarily of dwarf xeromorphic shrubs, annual plants, and perennial species. Sandy deserts dominate the landscape, interspersed with shrubs, shrublets, and some grasses.
Sixty-eight locations were selected randomly within the KARR area to trap insects (Figure 1 and Table 2); the geographical position of each site was recorded using a Garmin eTrex 30 GPS (Lenexa Kansas City, USA) and Gaia program (https://help.gaiagps.com/hc/en-us (version number: Gaia Pro 2021) accessed on 24 January 2024) and all maps were prepared by ArcGIS Desktop 10.8.1 July 2020, Esri.

2.2. Sample Collection and Identification

This study employed active sampling methods, such as manual collection (mainly for Blattodea, Lepidoptera and Orthoptera) and night surveys (for moths and crickets). The study also adopted passive methods [18], which were useful for collecting nocturnal species and for the species that hide in response to the movement of the team members in the search area. Passive methods included the use of pitfall traps (mainly for ground beetles and ants), malaise traps (for Hymenoptera and Diptera), and blue vane traps (for bees and some wasps). The stick–paper method was also adopted for plant dwelling insects (Hemiptera and other plant pests, e.g., Coleoptera). One of each trap type was similarly and simultaneously put at each site in order to catch the maximum number of various insect species for constructing seasonal base-line data; a comparison of the effectiveness of each method was not conducted. Each trap was set up at 6:00 AM and collected after 24 h. The collected samples were transferred to labeled (number of site, date, and method of collection) bottles, half-filled with 70% ethanol, and then transported to the laboratory for immediate counting and identification.
Identification was first based on the key of Gillotts [19], which classified the obtained specimens to the order level. Then, the identification relied mainly on the morphological characteristics using the taxonomic keys for each insect order: Coleoptera [17,20,21,22], Hemiptera [20,23], Hymenoptera [20,24,25,26,27,28], Blattodea [29], Lepidoptera [20,30], and Orthoptera [20,31].

2.3. Statistical Analysis

Data collected were presented as relative abundance (%), density (number/site), distribution (positive sites), and the number of identified orders, families, species, and total collected specimens. Simpson’s diversity index (dominance index: D) was used to quantify the biodiversity of any given species in a community in a certain area (the higher the value, the higher the diversity or richness). Following the principals introduced by Simpson [32], which consider both the number of individual species and their relative abundance, the diversity index (D) for each species was calculated as follows:
D = n i ( n i 1 ) N N 1
The formula to calculate Simpson’s diversity (D) for insect communities was:
D = n i n i 1 N N 1
where N = the total number of individual species in the population and ni = the number of individual species.
The compliment (D) value ranges from 0 (indicating no distribution) to 1.0 (indicating distribution across all sites). This parameter was approved and used by KARR to quantify the diversity of animals within the reserved area. It also assisted the estimation of biodiversity decline [33].
The calculation of (1-D) is called Gini–Simpson index. Both Simpson’s diversity for the insect community and Gini–Simpson index (1-D) were not calculated as this study is concentrated on the occurrence and richness of species in respect to each season.
ANOVA (two factors) was used to determine type of difference between abundance of insect order members across different seasons at p-value (0.05) at both row (insect orders) and column (the seasons) levels.

3. Results

3.1. The Identification of the Collected Insects

From 6320 trapped insects (excluding immature stages), the species belonged to six orders: Blattodea (36), Coleoptera (2264), Hemiptera (156), Hymenoptera (3672), Lepidoptera (21), and Orthoptera (171). Blattodea (the termites), were represented by two families and two species. Coleoptera contained 12 families and 38 species, 11 of them belonging to the family Tenebrionidae. Hemiptera contained seven families and nine species, three of them belonging to the family Lygaeidae. Hymenoptera contained 5 families and 15 species, 9 of them from Formicidae. Lepidoptera contained two families and three species. Orthoptera contained three families and seven species, four of them from the family Acrididae. The scientific names, author names, and years, in addition to the families, are presented in Table 3, while the biodiversity of species in respect to each order is presented in Figure 2. The relative abundance of each order is presented in Figure 3.

3.2. Biodiversity and Densities for the Winter Collection (January–March 2023)

The winter collection (989 insects) involved six insect orders. In respect to the total number collected, Hymenoptera is the most distributed order (with one family, four species, and a count number of 523; D = 0.27), representing more than 50% of the total insects collected, followed by Coleoptera (7 families, 14 species, and total collection number of 326; D = 0.127). The collection also involved Orthoptera, Blattodea, and Lepidoptera (one family, one species for each), in addition to Hemiptera (two families and two species). The family and species names, corresponding to the number of positive sites (+ve site), the number collected, and the distribution index (D), are presented in Table 4, while relative abundances are presented in Figure 4. The immature stages of Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, and Hemiptera were noticed and recorded during this period. B. polychresta (D = 0.0033) and M. angustata (D = 0.0028) beetles, in addition to Camponotus aegyptiacus (D = 0.0368), Messor meridionalis (D = 0.0291), and Cataglyphis viticoides (D = 0.0221) ants, show a higher distribution index over other species collected during this season.

3.3. Biodiversity and Densities for the Spring Collection (May 2023)

The spring collection included 2275 insects belonging to 5 orders and 45 species, which is approximately double that of winter collection. Hymenoptera was the most abundant order (with two families, five species, and a count number of 1273; D = 0.313), which were highly distributed across KARR, followed by Coleoptera (10 families, 30 species, and a total collection number of 703; D = 0.095). The collection also involved three orders: Orthoptera (three families, three species, and total number of 114), Lepidoptera (two families, three species), in addition to Hemiptera (four families and four species; Table 5 and Figure 5). It was also noticed that the immature stages of Hemiptera, Orthoptera, and Lepidoptera were also recorded. Camponotus aegyptiacus (D = 0.086) ant, B. polychresta (D = 0.0019) beetle, in addition to Lepidoptera’s larvae (D = 0.0016), show a relatively higher distribution index over other species collected during spring season.

3.4. Biodiversity and Densities for the Summer Collection (August–September 2023)

The summer collection involved 1462 insects belonging to 4 orders and 30 species; most of them were darkling beetles and ants. Hymenoptera was the most abundant order (with 4 families, 11 species, and 1035 individuals; D = 0.501), followed by Coleoptera (6 families, 12 species, and 375 collected members; D = 0.065). The collection also involved two orders: Orthoptera (3 families, 3 species and total number of 24), and Hemiptera (2 families, 3 species, and total number of 28). Camponotus aegyptiacus (D = 0.043), Camponotus foraminosus (D = 0.036) ants, and B. polychresta (D = 0.0025) beetle, show a relatively higher distribution index over other species collected during summer season (Table 6 and Figure 6).

3.5. Biodiversity and Densities for the Autumn Collection (October–November 2023)

The autumn collection involved 2042 insects belonging to 6 orders, 23 families, and 40 species, which is less than that of spring collection. Coleoptera was the most abundant order (8 families, 17 species, and 868 individuals; D = 0.180), followed by Hymenoptera (with 4 families, 10 species, and the a count number of 841; D = 0.169). The collection also involved Orthoptera (3 families, 5 species, and a total number of 111), Hemiptera (4 families, 5 species, and total number of 107), Lepidoptera (2 families, 3 species, and a total number of 92), in addition to Blattodea (2 families and 2 species, and a total number of 23). It was also noticed that the immature stages of all orders, except Hymenoptera and Blattodea, were also recorded. The B. polychresta (D = 0.0133) beetle, in addition to Camponotus wroughtonii (D = 0.0159) and Messor meridioralis (D = 0.0128) ants, show a relatively higher distribution index over other species collected during autumn season (Table 7 and Figure 7).
Table 8 summarizes the distribution of different insects across the seasons. It was clear that Blattodea was not recorded during summer and spring seasons, while Lepidoptera was not recorded during summer and only one individual was recorded during the winter season. Blattodea represented 0.57% of the total insect collected during this study, while Coleoptera represented 35.8%, Hemiptera represented 2.47%, Lepidoptera represented 0.33% (although considerable numbers of larvae were recorded but not identified as species), and Orthoptera represented 2.7%. Hymenoptera represented about 58% of all insects identified within KARR during the study period. It was also noticed that the spring collection (2059) was relatively greater than autumn (1842), summer (1462), and winter (957) collections. It was also noticed that there is no consistency for the abundance of insect species in respect to seasons, i.e., while some were flourished during summer or spring (Hymenoptera), others flourished during winter (Orthoptera) or autumn (Blattodea, Coleoptera, and Hemiptera).
ANOVA analysis shows a significant difference (at p-value 0.05) in the rows level (insect orders) but not in the columns level (seasons), i.e., the identified insects (orders) differ in their numbers and their richness across KARR, but did not differ significantly in their distribution among seasons.

4. Discussion

The aim of this study was to evaluate the biodiversity of insects (in terms of density and abundance) within the designated study area in addition to reflecting the abundance of some key species. Similar studies has been conducted in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in the years 2017 [17], 2018 [34], 2020 [35], 2021 [36], 2022 [37], and 2023 [38]. All these studies agreed that Coleoptera and Hymenoptera are the most abundant insects in the KSA.
Similar studies were conducted in some Arabic countries, e.g., the UAE, during 2014 [39] and 2023 [40], and Algeria [41] and they share similar results with the KSA regarding the flourishing of darkling beetles and some ant species. This finding may be attributed to the similarity of arid habitat in the above-mentioned countries.
Table 8 shows that members of Hymenoptera (about 58% of all collection) were the most dominant insect throughout this study. It also shows a significant difference between insect orders in their occurrence, but not in their distribution across seasons. Hymenopteran insects (ants, bees, and wasps) played important roles as pollinators, parasites, honey makers, and carnivores [36].
It was noticed that the immature stages of all orders, except Hymenoptera and Blattodea, were recorded during autumn, winter, and spring, but not during the summer season and this may be attributed to the shortage of food source and plant cover, while the temperature was higher and humidity was lower, as shown in Table 1. Biodiversity in KSA is mainly influenced by the arid climate, vast desert, extensive mountain ranges, and the long coastlines along the Red Sea and the Arabian Gulf [35]. Global climate change has affected abundance by altering various abiotic and biotic factors which in turn impacts species’ physiology, morphology, and life pattern. As such, systematic monitoring, assessment, and conservation are necessary to protect biodiversity in Saudi Arabia’s aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems, in line with Vision 2030 [12].
In respect to microhabitat, few species of insects are restricted to certain plants. One of these insects is Steraspis speciosa (the xylophagus beetle) which was recorded in this study. It is a potential cause of significant damage and death to Acacia trees in Saudi Arabia in the driest environments. This beetle is considered a pest of Acacia tree [22], while Hypolixus pica beetles (recorded in this study) are considered as beneficial insects and a potential biological control agent against Amaranthus weeds [42].
Few species of beetles with specialized adaptations appeared in certain seasons. One of these species is the carrion beetle Dermestes maculatus, which was recorded at two sites (four individuals; 0.18% of all Coleoptera) during the spring season only. It is an example of a spring-flourishing insect. This beetle feeds on dead vertebrate bodies and decomposes the flesh [43], so it has been used for the preparation of vertebrate skeletons [44]. The abundance of this insect is very important to decompose dead vertebrates within the KARR.
Another example highlighting the same concern is the Hydroglyphus signatellus beetle (seven individuals; 0.31% of all Coleoptera), which appeared only during the autumn season, swimming in stagnant rainwater. This species is known as a predaceous diving beetle [45].
Five species belonging to the Scarabaeidea family were recorded during this study. These beetles feed exclusively on herbivore and omnivore feces, and hence, are named dung beetles. These beetles inhabit and are adapted to live in desert, savanna, and forest ecosystems, but do not like very cold or hot habitats. These beetles play important ecological roles, first by burying and consuming dung, which helps to improve soil structure and plant growth; second by helping to distribute seeds present in dung; and third by helping in environmental control by removing the dung of cattle and assisting animal husbandry against vectors and flies, saving millions of dollars spent in cattle industries [46].
Table 4, Table 5, Table 6 and Table 7 show that Blaps polychresta dominated across the study periods (466 individuals; 20.58% of all Coleoptera). Blaps is a genus of darkling beetle, represented in this study by two genera. It was trapped within 54 sites out of 68. Generally, there are more than 30 known species of Blaps, mainly distributed in Eurasia and Australia [21].
Table 2 shows that the family Tenebrionidae (the darkling beetles) has a high species richness across this study (represented by 12 species, 1668 individuals, and 73.67% of all Coleoptera), and this may be as a result of its special adaptations to live in arid and semiarid habitats. They prefer vegetated (shrub or grass) habitats. This finding can be attributed to the fact that vegetation tends to reduce the risk of desiccation and predation and offers better oviposition location; additionally, these beetles are detritivores [47]. The predatory darkling beetle can move easily between the vegetation to pursue prey. It is well known that the microorganisms which live in the digestive system of darkling beetles are used to decompose plant litter and recycle the nutrients into the soil to improve its nutrient composition, and hence, help in increasing plant production. Some darkling beetles (e.g., Calosoma) are more important predators than many other desert predators. The abundance of these beetles year-round in desert areas makes them an available source of food for reptiles, birds, and small mammals. It is very important to mention that none of the Blap species were recorded as pests [48].
Another member of Tenebrionidae beetle family that was widely distributed within the KARR is the beetle Mesostena angustata (recorded within 52 sites out of 68, with a total of 347 individuals (20.8% of all darkling beetles) trapped across the study period). In some reports, this beetle is well known as a predator and was noticed to feed on Messor intermedius ant [49]. In the current study, this beetle was noticed within some termite colonies, feeding on them. Beetles (specially Tenebrionidae) are widely distributed and dominate across several Provinces in the KSA [33,34,35,37], UAE [40], Algeria [41], Iran [49], Qatar [50], Iraq [51], Kuwait [52], and Israel [53], but not in India [54] where Lepidoptera is dominates over Coleoptera and Hymenoptera.
The Pimelia beetle was also recorded in this study with a remarkable abundance (227 individuals; 13.61% of all darkling beetles). It is an example of a good desert-adapted beetle. It survives in arid climates and desert environments (high temperature, low humidity, excessive radiant energy, low and irregular rainfall, long periods of drought, strong winds, and unstable sand substrates) in virtue of some adaptations, including it losing its ability to fly. Its morphological adaptations include the waxy layers of the epicuticle, the fused sclerites (that minimize water loss), the subelytral cavity (that allowed relative humidity to spiracles and reduce water loss), and the structure of the body surface (which reflects and scatters radiant energy). Diurnal activity early morning and late evening in addition to burrowing behavior helps a lot in heat regulation during hot days [53]. It was suggested that the abundance of darkling beetles can be used as an environmental bioindicator for pesticides [55].
Concerning the ecological adaptations, the darkling beetle, Prionotheca coronata (61 individuals distributed within 24 sites), has unique morphological and behavioral adaptations to the desert area. It possesses sharp spines along its abdominal margin and along its inner hind legs (for this reason it is named urchin beetle), used against vertebrate or invertebrate enemies [56].
Two individuals of triatoma (Hemiptera) were recorded in only one site within the KARR. Triatoma is a blood-sucking bug and can transmit Chagas disease that infects human and other mammals. Its saliva may cause allergic reactions to some people; hence, it was ranked with the medical and veterinary insects [57]. Although only two triatoma bugs were recorded, attention must be focused on their medical value to the local people and their domestic animals.
Aphis nerii was also reported in this study (73 individuals; 46.79% of all Hemiptera insects). It is considered to be a plant pest that causes serious damage to various crops due to its feeding habit, resulting in economic losses. Some Hemiptera insects can transmit various plant pathogens (e.g., viruses, bacteria, and phytoplasmas) [58]. Their successive feeding process in addition to their potential to transmit plant pathogens may hurt crops and cause a negative impact on agricultural production. The interactions between plants and Hemiptera are multi-faceted; part of this interaction is related to the plant biosynthesis of some molecules and the adaptation of some defense mechanisms. Insects struggle to obtain nutrients from plants and to assure shelter and oviposition place within plants. The plant then responds to insect infestation by developing physical barriers to prevent insect gaining access to plants and by producing anti-nutrition (deterrent) compounds. In turn, insects adapt to avoid plants’ defense strategies. The development of competing strategies that benefit both plants and insects will never stop, as it is a concept of survival [59,60].
Two species of termites were recorded in this study, but there are 30 termite species distributed in the Arabian Peninsula, belonging to 4 families and 9 genera, of which 27 species are known in Saudi Arabia (three of them are previously recorded in Riyadh Province: Anacathotermes ochraceous, Psammotermes hypostoma and Coptotermes heimi) [29]. Anacathotermes and Psammotermes termites are distributed in the desert and semi-desert areas of North Africa, Middle East, and Southwest Asia [61].
Although termites are considered as wood pests in forests, they are also considered as main decomposers in arid and semi-arid habitats. Termites also act as soil engineers, since they improve the physical (texture) and chemical properties of the soil through acting as bioturbators and as weathering agents of clay minerals (e.g., iron and calcium) [62,63].
Table 2 shows the relatively high abundance of ant species: Camponotus (2233 individuals, 60.81% of all Hymenoptera and 35.22% of all collected insects), Messor (817 individuals, 22.25% of all Hymenoptera and 12.88% of all collected insects), and Cataglyphis (599 individuals, 16.38% of all Hymenoptera and 9.45% of all collected insects). These species are reported within some Provinces of the KSA [36]. Ants played an important ecological and agricultural role in seedling establishment and plant composition, specifically in the arid habitat [64]. Ants are also considered to be cheap, clean, and accurate bio-indicator tools for diagnosing soil fertility. The physical properties and chemical contents (e.g., nitrogen and phosphorus) of soil are significantly improved within three weeks of ant presence [65]. Concerning the distribution of ants, they are widely found in agricultural land, dry land, vegetative land, and human houses, without any significant differences between these habitats [66]. The distribution of ants across a trees is correlated with tree trunk size, topography, and tree species [67].
Schistocerca. gregaria (the desert locust), which was recorded at five sites in the KARR, is a highly voracious and polyphagous insect, and is considered to be one of the most dangerous and destructive migratory pests in the world against various crops. It can travel hundreds of kilometers a day; thus, its population size cannot be easily estimated. Integrated control methods, in addition to monitoring techniques, should be adopted against this serious pest [68,69] and in the KARR.
Few members of bees, wasps, and Lepidoptera’s were recorded in this study. Bees (honey bees and megachilids), Lepidoptera (butterfly and moth), and aculeate wasps, are the main pollinators. Flowering plants in turn encourage these insects by providing nectar and high-protein foods in the form of pollen grains. Their adhesive and hairy legs or bodies, in addition to the presence of some basket-like structures in some insect species, assists in pollination. It was noticed that insecticide application against some plant pests occasionally hurt these pollinators (as non-target organisms) and the consequences will be reduction in pollinator activity and a collapse in plant production [70,71].
The variation in species composition in any ecosystem is dependent on its assemblage, dynamics, inter and intra-specific interactions, etc., which changes among different microhabitats [72], which is very obvious in the biodiversity of insect species reported in this study in respect to the variation in habitats across different sites and seasons within the KARR. No specific patterns or features are noticed during this study to indicate climate change since the same species with the same morphological features are distributed within the KSA and neighboring countries. The occurrence and distribution of various pollinators, seed distributors, decomposers, predators, plant pests, and medical and veterinary insects, in addition to considerable numbers of immature stages and other mentioned insects across the seasons within the KARR, in addition to other neighboring provinces and countries, reflects the status of the ecological system and its capacity to host this diversity. It is also worth noting that none of the mutation signs or features were noticed during the identification process.
The integration of the obtained data with that of other parallel survey studies (non-insect arthropods, reptiles, birds, and mammals), will help the KARR in planning suitable conservation plans. The data of the further surveys will help to determine whether the occurrence line of insects is stable, increases, or declines.

5. Conclusions

Insect density and biodiversity were observed to be relatively lower during the winter season (January–March) and autumn (October–November), but relatively higher during spring (May) and summer (August–September). The number of identified insects in each order differ significantly, but their abundance during the seasons are do not differ substantially, i.e., no specific season provides the optimum conditions for all identified insects to flourish. The immature stages of all orders, except Hymenoptera and Blattodea, were not recorded during summer season. This study also showed the presence of some plant pests, disease vectors, pollinators, decomposers, and potential bio-control insects distributed within the study area.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, A.S.A. and M.A.K.; methodology, M.A.K., A.M.A. (Abdulaziz M. Alqahtani) and M.H.A.; software, A.S.A., S.A.A. and A.H.A.; validation, A.S.A. and M.A.K.; formal analysis, A.S.A., S.A.A. and A.H.A.; investigation, A.H.A., M.H.A., A.M.A. (Abdulaziz M. Alqahtani), A.M.A. (Abdullah M. Alowaifeer) and A.F.A.; resources, A.M.A. (Abdulaziz M. Alqahtani) and M.H.A.; data curation, M.A.K. and A.F.A.; writing—original draft preparation, A.S.A., M.A.K. and A.F.A.; writing—review and editing, S.A.A., H.H.A. and A.M.A. (Abdullah M. Alowaifeer); visualization, H.H.A. and A.F.A.; supervision, H.H.A., A.M.A. (Abdullah M. Alowaifeer) and A.F.A.; project administration, H.H.A., A.M.A. (Abdullah M. Alowaifeer) and A.F.A. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This project was funded by King Abdulaziz Royal Reserve Development Authority and conducted by the Green Sustainability Company for Environmental Services (GSCES), Saudi Arabia.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

All data analyzed are included within the article.

Acknowledgments

The authors extend their appreciation to both the King Abdulaziz Royal Reserve Development Authority and the Green Sustainability Company for Environmental Services (GSCES) in Saudi Arabia for their assistance with samples collection and their support of this research. Also we would like to thank Ibrahim Elgamal, Amir Shalouf and Salem Bakarman for their assistance with samples collection.

Conflicts of Interest

Authors Moutaman Ali Kehail and Hussein H. Alkhamis were employed by the company Green Sustainability Company for Environmental Services (GSCES). The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

References

  1. Stork, N.E. How many species of insects and other terrestrial arthropods are there on earth? Annu. Rev. Entomol. 2018, 63, 31–45. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  2. Braak, N.; Neve, R.; Jones, A.K.; Gibbs, M.; Breuker, C.J. The effects of insecticides on butterflies—A review. Environ. Pollut. 2018, 242 Pt A, 507–518. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  3. Briggs, J.C. Emergence of a sixth mass extinction. Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 2017, 122, 243–248. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN). IUCN Red List Version 2016.1. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2017. Available online: https://dc.sourceafrica.net/documents/119604-10-2305-IUCN-UK-2016-1-RLTS-T2119A13322361-En.html (accessed on 23 January 2025).
  5. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN). IUCN Red List Version 2024.2. 2025. Available online: https://www.iucnredlist.org (accessed on 23 January 2025).
  6. Chen, W.; Gu, T.; Xiang, J.; Luo, T.; Zeng, J. Assessing the conservation effectiveness of national nature reserves in China. Appl. Geogr. 2023, 161, 103125. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Chen, W.; Gu, T.; Fang, C.; Zeng, J. Global urban low-carbon transitions: Multiscale relationship between urban land and carbon emissions. Environ. Impact Assess. Rev. 2023, 100, 107076. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Wang, X.; Wang, X.; Tu, Y.; Yao, W.; Zhou, J.; Jia, Z.; Ma, J.; Sun, Z. Systematic conservation planning considering ecosystem services can optimize the conservation system in the Qinling-Daba Mountains. J. Environ. Manag. 2024, 368, 122096. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Luo, X.; Luo, Y.; Le, F.; Zhang, Y.; Zhang, H.; Zhai, J. Spatiotemporal Variation and Prediction Analysis of Land Use/Land Cover and Ecosystem Service Changes in Gannan, China. Sustainability 2024, 16, 1551. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Zhang, M.; Li, J.; Wang, L.; Xu, B.; Nie, W. The impact of connectivity in natural protected areas on the resilience of urban ecological networks: A research framework based on hierarchical disturbance scenario simulation. Ecol. Indic. 2024, 164, 112144. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Šmíd, J.; Sindaco, R.; Shobrak, M.; Busais, S.; Tamar, K.; Aghová, T.; Simó-Riudalbas, M.; Tarroso, P.; Geniez, P.; Crochet, P.-A.; et al. Diversity patterns and evolutionary history of Arabian squamates. J. Biogeogr. 2021, 48, 1183–1199. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Alatawi, A.S. Conservation action in Saudi Arabia: Challenges and opportunities. Saudi J. Biol. Sci. 2022, 29, 3466–3472. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Amprako, L.; Stenchly, K.; Wiehle, M.; Nyarko, G.; Buerkert, A. Arthropod communities in urban agricultural production systems under different irrigation sources in the northern region of Ghana. Insects 2020, 11, 488. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Zidan, I.; Hassan, M.; Abou-Elella, G.; El-Saiedy, E.; Nawar, M. Arthropods in Two Organic Agro-Ecosystems; Biodiversity, Distribution, and Weeds Impacts. Preprints 2022. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. John, A.; Riat, A.K.; Bhat, K.A.; Ganie, S.A.; Endarto, O.; Nugroho, C.; Handoko, H.; Wani, A.K. Adapting to climate extremes: Implications for insect populations and sustainable solutions. J. Nat. Conserv. 2024, 79, 126602. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Subedi, B.; Poudel, A.; Aryal, S. The impact of climate change on insect pest biology and ecology: Implications for pest management strategies, crop production, and food security. J. Agric. Food Res. 2023, 14, 100733. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Abdel-Dayem, M.S.; Fad, H.H.; El-Torkey, A.M.; Elgharbawy, A.A.; Aldryhim, Y.N.; Kondratieff, B.C.; Al Ansi, A.N.; Aldhafer, H.M. The beetle fauna (Insecta, Coleoptera) of the Rawdhat Khorim National Park, Central Saudi Arabia. ZooKeys 2017, 653, 1–78. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Hohbein, R.; Conway, C. A review of methods for estimating arthropod abundance: Pitfall Traps: Estimating Arthropod Abundance. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 2018, 42, 597–606. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Gillott, C. Entomology, 3rd ed.; Springer: Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 2005; ISBN 978-1-4020-3182-30. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Local Natural List of Fauna and Flora of Saudi Arabia. Available online: https://www.inaturalist.org/places/saudi-arabia# (accessed on 20 January 2025).
  21. Chigray, I.; Kirejtshuk, A.G. The supraspecific structure of the subtribe Blaptina Leach, 1815 (Coleoptera, Tenebrionidae: Blaptinae). Acta Zool. 2023, 69, 213–245. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Alanazi, N.A.; Ghorbel, M.; Brini, F.; Mseddi, K. The Life Cycle of the Xylophagous Beetle, Steraspis speciosa (Coleoptera, Buprestidae), Feeding on Acacia Trees in Saudi Arabia. Life 2022, 12, 2015. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Burckhardt, D.; Mifsud, D. Psylloidea (Insecta: Hemiptera) of the Arabian Peninsula. Fauna Arab. 1998, 17, 7–49. [Google Scholar]
  24. Engel, M.S.; Alqarni, A.S.; Hannan, M.A. A preliminary list of bee genera in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (Hymenoptera: Apoidea). J. Saudi Soc. Agric. Sci. 2013, 12, 85–89. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Sharaf, M.R.; Salman, S.; Aldawood, A.S. Additions to the Ant Fauna of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (Hymenoptera: Formicidae), with an Updated List of the Saudi Species. Ann. Zool. 2023, 73, 195–214. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Gadallah, N.S.; El-Barty, A.F. Spider wasps collected from the western region of Saudi Arabia. Zool. Middle East 2011, 53, 99–106. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Brothers, D.J.; Gadallah, N.S. Biodiversity of the aculeate wasps (Hymenoptera: Aculeata) of the Arabian Peninsula: Preface. Zootaxa 2020, 4754, 3. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Gadallah, N.; Al Dhafer, H.; Aldryhim, Y.N.; Fadl, H.; Elgharbawy, A.A. The digger wasps of Saudi Arabia: New records and distribution, with a checklist of species (Hym.: Ampulicidae, Crabronidae and Sphecidae). North-West. J. Zool. 2013, 9, 345–364. [Google Scholar]
  29. Sharaf, M.R.; Hussain, M.; Rasool, K.G.; Tufail, M.; Aldawood, A.S. Taxonomy and distribution of termite fauna (Isoptera) in Riyadh Province, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, with an updated list of termite species on the Arabian Peninsula. Saudi J. Biol. Sci. 2021, 28, 6795–6802. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. De Prins, J.; De Prins, W. Afromoths, Online Database of Afrotropical Moth Species (Lepidoptera). Afromoths. 2017. Available online: https://www.afromoths.net/ (accessed on 19 January 2025).
  31. Abu Yaman, I.K. Orthoptera of the Central Province of Saudi Arabia. J. Appl. Entomol. 2009, 70, 88–92. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Simpson, E. Measurement of diversity. Nature 1949, 163, 688. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Rafferty, J.P. Biodiversity Loss: Ecology. Encyclopedia Britannica. 2025. Available online: https://www.britannica.com/science/biodiversity-loss (accessed on 17 February 2025).
  34. Ashfaq, M.; Sabir, J.S.M.; El-Ansary, H.O.; Perez, K.; Levesque-Beaudin, V.; Khan, A.M.; Rasool, A.; Gallant, C.; Addesi, J.; Hebert, P.D.N. Insect diversity in the Saharo-Arabian region: Revealing a little-studied fauna by DNA barcoding. PLoS ONE 2018, 13, e0199965. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. Al Saud, M.M. Biodiversity. In Sustainable Land Management for NEOM Region; Springer: Cham, Switzerland, 2020; pp. 121–144. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  36. Bosly, H.A.E. A preliminary detective survey of hymenopteran insects at Jazan Lake Dam Region, Southwest of Saudi Arabia. Saudi J. Biol. Sci. 2021, 28, 2342–2351. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Ansari, A.A.; Siddiqui, Z.H.; Alatawi, F.A.; Alharbi, B.M.; Alotaibi, A.S. An Assessment of Biodiversity in Tabuk Region of Saudi Arabia: A Comprehensive Review. Sustainability 2022, 14, 10564. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Alsaleem, T.A.; Kehail, M.A.; Alzahrani, A.S.; Alsaleem, T.; Alkhalifa, A.H.; Alqahtani, A.M.; Altalhi, M.H.; Alkhamis, H.H.; Alowaifeer, A.M.; Alrefaei, A.F. Seasonal Distribution and Diversity of Non-Insect Arthropods in Arid Ecosystems: A Case Study from the King Abdulaziz Royal Reserve, Kingdom Saudi Arabia. Biology 2024, 13, 1082. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Anitha, S.; Shaikha, S.A. Diversity and seasonality of some of the ground dwelling invertebrates in the Eastern Region of Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. Int. J. Biodivers. Conserv. 2014, 6, 271–279. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Howarth, B. Terrestrial Arthropod Diversity in the United Arab Emirates. In A Natural History of the Emirates; Springer Nature: Cham, Switzerland, 2023; pp. 531–556. [Google Scholar]
  41. Chenchouni, H.; Menasria, T.; Neffar, S.; Chafaa, S.; Bradai, L.; Chaibi, R.; Mekahlia, M.N.; Bendjoudi, D.; Bachir, A.S. Spatiotemporal diversity, structure and trophic guilds of insect assemblages in a semi-arid Sabkha ecosystem. Peer J. 2015, 3, e860. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Pehlivan, S.; Erbey, M.; Atakan, E. The weevil, Hypolixus pica (F.) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) as a potential biological control agent of Amaranthus species (Amaranthaceae) in Adana Province, Turkey. Turk. Biyolojik Mucadele Derg. 2022, 13, 118–127. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Archer, M.S.; Elgar, M.A. Cannibalism and delayed pupation in hide beetles, Dermestes maculatus DeGeer (Coleoptera: Dermestidae). Aust. J. Entomol. 2007, 37, 158–161. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Graves, R. Beetles & Bones: Care, Feeding, and Use of Dermestid Beetles; Jillett Publications: South Berwick, ME, USA, 2006; p. 44. ISBN 978-0-9774630-0-8. [Google Scholar]
  45. Nilsson, A.N.; Hájek, J. A World Catalogue of the Family Dytiscidae, or the Diving Beetles (Coleoptera, Adephaga), Version 1.I.2021; Apollo Books: Stenstrup, Denmark; Stanford University Press: Redwood City, CA, USA, 2021; 395p. [Google Scholar]
  46. Badenhorst, J.; Dabrowski, J.; Scholtz, C.H.; Truter, W.F. Dung beetle activity improves herbaceous plant growth and soil properties on confinements simulating reclaimed mined land in South Africa. Appl. Soil Ecol. 2018, 132, 53–59. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. Macagno, H.B.; Cruz, I.G.; Rodriguez-Artigas, S.M.; Corronca, J.A.; Flores, G.E. Environmental factors determining the diversity of darkling beetles (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) in arid, high-altitude environments in Northwestern Argentina. An. Acad. Bras. Cienc. 2023, 95, e20201185. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Bartholomew, A.; El Moghrabi, J. Seasonal preference of darkling beetles (Tenebrionidae) for shrub vegetation due to high temperatures, not predation or food availability. J. Arid. Environ. 2018, 156, 34–40. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Makkan, D.; Ezzatpanoh, S.; Ghahari, H.; Naderian, H.; Hadian, A.; Hawkeswood, T.J. Mesostena angustata Fabricius, 1775 (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) from Semnan, Iran, feeding on ants of Messor intermedius Santschi, 1927 (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Calodema 2011, 171, 1–6. [Google Scholar]
  50. Alkhayat, F.A.; Ahmad, A.H.; Rahim, J.; Imran, M.; Sheikh, U.A.A. Distribution and Diversity of aquatic insects in different water bodies of Qatar. Braz. J. Biol. 2022, 84, e255950. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  51. Al-Saffar, H.H.; Augul, R.S. Checklist of darkling beetles (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) in Iraq. Bull. Iraq Natl. Hist. Mus. 2023, 17, 699–724. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  52. Amr, Z. The State of Biodiversity in Kuwait, 1st ed.; IUCN: Gland, Switzerland, 2021; ISBN 9782831721347. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  53. Ayal, Y.; Merkl, O. Spatial and temporal distribution of tenebrionid species (Coleoptera) in the Negev Highlands, Israel. J. Arid. Environ. 1993, 27, 347–361. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  54. Arya, M.K.; Chandra, H.; Verma, A. Spatial insect diversity paradigms and related ecosystem services in the protected Nandhour landscape of India. J. Insect Biodivers. Syst. 2023, 9, 115–138. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  55. Maeno, K.; Nakamura, S.; Babah, M.A.O. Nocturnal and Sheltering Behaviours of the Desert Darkling Beetle, Pimelia senegalensis (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae), in the Sahara Desert. Afr. Entomol. 2014, 22, 499–504. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  56. Hammoud, D.; Bartholomew, A.; Ahmed, S. Description of unique defensive behaviors of the Radiant Sun Beetle Prionotheca coronata (Tenebrionidae). Zool. Middle East 2024, 70, 154–160. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  57. Lima-Cordón, R.A.; Monroy, M.C.; Stevens, L.; Rodas, A.; Rodas, G.A.; Dorn, P.L.; Justi, S.A. Description of Triatoma huehuetenanguensis, a potential Chagas disease vector (Hemiptera, Reduviidae, Triatominae). ZooKeys 2019, 820, 51–70. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  58. Oppedisano, T.; Shrestha, G.; Rondon, S.I. Chapter 9—Hemipterans, other than aphids and psyllids affecting potatoes worldwide. In Insect Pests of Potato, 2nd ed.; Academic Press: Cambridge, MA, USA, 2022; pp. 167–187. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  59. Hamann, E.; Blevins, C.; Franks, S.J.; Jameel, M.I.; Anderson, J.T. Climate change alters plant-herbivore interactions. New Phytol. 2021, 229, 1894–1910. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  60. Nalam, V.; Louis, J.; Shah, J. Plant defense against aphids, are pest extraordinaire. Plant Sci. 2019, 279, 96–107. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  61. Bath, R. Psammotermes. Termites of the World. European Distributed Institute of Taxonomy (EDIT). 2009. Available online: https://www.museumfuernaturkunde.berlin/en/research/edit-european-distributed-institute-taxonomy (accessed on 18 January 2025).
  62. Jouquet, P.; Harit, A.; Cheik, S.; Traoré, S.; Bottinelli, N. Termites: Soil engineers for ecological engineering. Comptes Rendus Biol. 2019, 342, 258–259. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  63. Bekele, A.; Beyene, S.; Yimer, F.; Kiflu, A. Numerical classification of termite-mediated soils along toposequences and rangeland use influenced soil properties in southeast Ethiopia. Heliyon 2023, 10, e23726. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  64. Sharafatmandrad, M.; Mashizi, A.K. Plant community dynamics in arid lands: The role of desert ants. J. Arid Land 2021, 13, 303–316. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  65. Sánchez-Gregorio, R.; Garcia-Martinez, M.; Gheno-Heredia, Y.A.; Zilli-Ponce, N.B. A Rapid Sampling of Ant Assemblages Diagnoses Soil Physicochemical Properties before Planting Chayote Monoculture. Sociobiology 2024, 71, 1. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  66. Inoue, K.S.; Nakatsuji, K.; Koyama, S.; Kobayashi, Y.; Yoshida, T. Ant utilization of tree trunks in relation to environmental factors in a temperate forest. Acta Oecologica 2024, 125, 104039. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  67. Begum, R.; Majagi, S.H.; Vijaykumar, K. Ant’s species richness and diversity in relation to different ecological habitat in selected localities of the semi-arid region of Karnataka, India. Environ. Monit. Assess. 2021, 193, 145–158. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  68. Katel, S.; Mandal, H.R.; Neupane, P.; Timsina, S.; Pokhrel, P.; Katuwal, A.; Subedi, S.; Shrestha, J.; Shah, K. Desert locust (Schistocerca gregaria Forskal) and its management: A review. J. Agric. Appl. Biol. 2021, 2, 61–69. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  69. Saha, A.; Rahman, S.; Alam, S. Modeling current and future potential distributions of desert locust Schistocerca gregaria (Forskål) under climate change scenarios using MaxEnt. J. Asia-Pac. Biodivers. 2021, 14, 399–409. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  70. Lavaut, E.; Guillemin, M.-L.; Colin, S.; Faure, A.; Coudret, J.; Destombe, C.; Valero, M. Pollinators of the sea: A discovery of animal-mediated fertilization in seaweed. Science 2022, 377, 528–530. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  71. Seitz, N.; Vanengelsdorp, D.; Leonhardt, S.D. Are native and non-native pollinator friendly plants equally valuable for native wild bee communities? Ecol. Evol. 2020, 10, 12838–12850. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  72. Srinath, B.S.; Samaje, A.B.; Shivanna, N. Population assemblage of the small fruit flies (Diptera: Drosophilidae) in the North Western Ghats of Karnataka (India) with special report on the Dominant species. J. Insect Biodivers. Syst. 2023, 9, 283–301. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Figure 1. Map of the study area showing locations of different sites within KARR.
Figure 1. Map of the study area showing locations of different sites within KARR.
Biology 14 00254 g001
Figure 2. Biodiversity of insects within KARR according to No. of species within each family.
Figure 2. Biodiversity of insects within KARR according to No. of species within each family.
Biology 14 00254 g002
Figure 3. Relative abundance of insects within KARR according to No. of individual insects within each order (Lepidoptera represented less than 1%).
Figure 3. Relative abundance of insects within KARR according to No. of individual insects within each order (Lepidoptera represented less than 1%).
Biology 14 00254 g003
Figure 4. Relative abundance of insects trapped during winter season (January–March 2023). Lepidoptera represented less than 1%.
Figure 4. Relative abundance of insects trapped during winter season (January–March 2023). Lepidoptera represented less than 1%.
Biology 14 00254 g004
Figure 5. Relative abundance of insect orders trapped during spring season (May 2023).
Figure 5. Relative abundance of insect orders trapped during spring season (May 2023).
Biology 14 00254 g005
Figure 6. Relative abundance of insect order trapped during summer (August–September 2023).
Figure 6. Relative abundance of insect order trapped during summer (August–September 2023).
Biology 14 00254 g006
Figure 7. Relative abundance of insect orders trapped during autumn (October–November 2023).
Figure 7. Relative abundance of insect orders trapped during autumn (October–November 2023).
Biology 14 00254 g007
Table 1. Weather (means) in KARR according to the National Center for Meteorology KSA (2023).
Table 1. Weather (means) in KARR according to the National Center for Meteorology KSA (2023).
Factors (Means)WinterSpringSummerAutumn
Temperature (°C)15354030
Relative Humidity (%)37%24%8%55%
Daylight (h/minute)10:5212:3913:2511:58
Rainfall (mm/season)4060025
Table 2. Localities and coordinates of the study area during the study.
Table 2. Localities and coordinates of the study area during the study.
PointLatitudeLongitudePointLatitudeLongitude
127.6468745.709563526.4447246.48722
227.6001645.776153626.7209846.37087
327.4988146.6373726.7579145.56311
427.5036246.147163826.721945.57994
527.2569946.056083926.6335345.78956
627.511345.800984026.5309746.01017
727.4221745.829124126.4767645.5344
827.4319946.188244226.4834646.13026
927.2956845.857484326.3253746.43316
1027.3344446.26174426.3487446.38948
1127.335346.741944526.3805645.98999
1227.2357246.687744626.0919846.45269
1327.2828946.642124726.1520345.7425
1427.281146.352494826.0416246.47419
1527.1526846.832744926.1080746.04133
1627.1434446.389645025.993445.79071
1727.0427446.887685125.9042846.44288
1827.1203346.659855225.7941646.32906
1927.0735746.559275325.899246.13403
2027.1067146.424145425.9050245.80391
2126.9489446.765615525.7418546.33688
2227.0425446.587725625.7953646.09838
2326.9876146.370875725.8322346.00561
2427.2151545.628145825.9404345.8005
2526.9876146.005615925.7451846.20714
2626.8987346.918756025.7433546.09692
2726.901646.777386125.7742846.08666
2826.772746.299436225.8361946.51288
2927.1756645.64396325.496446.45628
3026.7900446.595236425.5545946.38676
3126.6673146.591696525.4624146.45496
3226.7508846.333576625.4771146.3885
3326.8098645.366416725.6673946.21809
3426.6455846.614816826.2490945.59824
Table 3. Specification of the identified insects within KARR during study period.
Table 3. Specification of the identified insects within KARR during study period.
OrderFamilyScientific Name(+ve) SitesTotal No.
BlattodeaHodotermitidaeAnacanthotermes ochraceous (Burmeister, 1839)629
RhinotermitidaePsammotermes hybostoma Desneux, 190227
ColeopteraBaprestidaeSteraspis speciosa (Klug, 1829)819
Julodis euphratica Laporte & Gory, 183525
Julodis sp. Eschscholtz, 182911
CarabidaeAmara aulica (Panzer, 1797)1168
Anthia duodecimguttata Bonelli, 181331214
Brachinus nobilis Dejean, 1831433
Calosoma imbricatum Klug, 18322268
Scarites procerus Fischer von Waldheim, 182811
CoccinellidaeCoccinella undecimpunctata Mulsant, 1850413
Diomus rubidus (Motschulsky, 1837)23
CurculionidaeHypera brunnipennis (Boheman, 1834)45
Hypolixus pica (Fabricius, 1798)26
Mecinus longulus (Desbrochers des Loges, 1893)12
Pycnodactylopsis tomentosa (Fåhraeus, 1842)11
DermestidaeAttagenus fasciolatus (Solsky, 1876)12
Attagenus lobatus Rosenhauer, 185634
Dermestes maculatus De Geer, 177424
DyticidaeHydroglyphus signatellus (Klug, 1834)37
ElatrididaeLacon modestus (Boisduval, 1835)1025
HisteridaeTeretrius pulex Fairmaire, 187723
MeloidaeMylabris elegans Olivier, 181145
ScarabaeidaeAphodius arabicus Harold, 187536
Aphodius lividus (Olivier, 1789)34
Maladera insanabilis (Brenske 1894)423
Podalgus cuniculus arabicus (Fairmaire, 1895)11
Rhyssemus saoudi Pittino, 19842072
StaphylinidaePhilonothus sp. Stephens, 182911
TenebrionidaeAdesmia cancellata (Klug, 1830)51279
Akis elevata Solier, 183639180
Blaps kollari Seidlitz, 189338
Blaps polychresta (Forskål, 1775)54466
Gonocephalum prolixum (Erichson, 1843)16
Mesostena angustata (Fabricius, 1775)52347
Pimelia arabica (Klug, 1830)49175
Pimelia sp. Fabricius, 17752552
Prionotheca coronata ovalis Ancey, 1881 2461
Trachyderma philistina Reiche & Saulcy, 18572088
Zophosis punctata Brullé, 183236
HemipteraAphididaeAphis nerii Fonscolombe, 1841973
LygaeidaeDieuches armipes (Fabricius, 1794)513
Lethaeus fulvovarius Puton, 188422
Spilostethus pandurus (Scopoli, 1763)831
MiridaeTylorilygus apicalis (Fieber, 1861)11
PentatomidaePhyllocephala negus (Distant, 1900)45
PyrrhocoridaeScantius aegypius (Linnaeus, 1758)720
ReduviidaeTriatoma sp. (Laporte, 1832)12
RhyparochromidaeBeosus maritimus (Scopoli, 1763)39
HymenopteraApididaeApis mellifera (Linnaeus, 1758)45
MegachilidaeMegachile sp. Latreille, 180214
CrabronidaeBembix sp. Fabricius, 177534
Mescophus sp. Jarine, 180724
FormicidaeCamponotus aegyptiacus Emery, 1915441297
Camponotus foraminosus Forel, 187918394
Camponotus sp. Mayr, 1861791
Camponotus wroughtonii Forel, 189323451
Cataglyphis bicolor (Fabricius, 1793)632
Cataglyphis sp. Forster, 185032281
Cataglyphis viticoides (Andre, 1881)22286
Messor alalocapius (Ruzsky, 1902)27172
Messor meridionalis (Andre, 1883)14645
SphecidaeAmmophila sp. W. Kirby, 179812
Sphex pruinosus Germar, 181734
LepidopteraErebidaeEublemma pallidula (Herrich-Schaffer, 1856)58
NoctuidaeHeliothis peltigera (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)67
Spodoptera mauritia (Boisduval, 1833)46
OrthopteraAcrididaeCyrtacanthacris tatarica (Linnaeus, 1758)11
Schistocerca gregaria (Forsskål, 1775)522
Rtuxalis nasuta (Linnaeus, 1758)11
Scintharista notabilis (Walker, 1870)514
GryllidaeGryllodes sigillatus (Walker, 1869)6101
Gryllus bimaculatus De Geer, 1773730
PyrgomorphidaePyrogomorpha conica (Olivier, 1791)22
Total6320
Table 4. Insect species trapped during winter season (January–March 2023).
Table 4. Insect species trapped during winter season (January–March 2023).
OrderFamilySpecies(+ve) SitesNo.D
BlattodeaHodotermitidaeAnacanthotermes ochraceous4131.56 × 10−4
ColeopteraBaprestidaeSteraspis speciosa7152.11 × 10−4
CarabidaeCarabidae larvae7308.73 × 10−4
Amara aulica8162.41 × 10−4
Anthia duodecimguttata2131.56 × 10−4
Brachinus nobilis2172.73 × 10−4
Calosoma imbricatum7131.56 × 10−4
CoccinellidaeDiomus rubidus236.14 × 10−6
DermestidaeAttagenus fasciolatus122.04 × 10−6
MeloidaeMylabris elegans341.23 × 10−5
ScarabaeidaeRhyssemus saoudi6277.04 × 10−4
TenebrionidaeAdesmia cancellata24380.0014
Akis elevate5152.11 × 10−4
Blaps polychresta32580.0033
Mesostena angustata33530.0028
Pimelia sp.25520.0026
3560.1267
HemipteraLygaeidaeSpilostethus pandurus122.04 × 10−6
PentatomidaePhyllocephala negus110.00
Nymph110.00
41.23 × 10−5
HymenopteraFormicidaeCamponotus aegyptiacus71920.0368
Camponotus foraminosus3111.1 × 10−4
Cataglyphis viticoides141490.0221
Messor meridionalis11710.0291
5230.2738
LepidopteraNoctuidaeHeliothis peltigera110.00
Larvae110.00
22.04 × 10−6
OrthopteraGryllidaeGryllodes sigillatus3910.0082
989
Table 5. Insect species trapped during spring season (May 2023).
Table 5. Insect species trapped during spring season (May 2023).
OrderFamilySpecies(+ve) SitesNo.D
ColeopteraBuprestidaeSteraspis speciosa242.32 × 10−6
Julodis euphratica253.87 × 10−6
Julodis sp.110.00
CarabidaeAmara aulica3484.36 × 10−4
Anthia duodecimguttata14870.0014
Brachinus nobilis2164.64 × 10−5
Calosoma imbricatum19555.74 × 10−4
Scarites procerus110.00
CurculionidaeHypera brunnipennis123.86 × 10−7
Hypolixus pica265.80 × 10−6
Mecinus longulus123.86 × 10−7
DermestidaeAttagenus lobatus231.16 × 10−6
Dermestes maculatus242.32 × 10−6
ElateridaeLacon modestus231.16 × 10−6
HisteridaeTeretrius pulex231.16 × 10−6
MeloidaeMylabris elegans110.00
ScarabaeidaeAphodius arabicus131.16 × 10−6
Maladera insanabilis253.87 × 10−6
Podalgus cuniculus110.00
Rhyssemus saoudi13251.15 × 10−4
StaphylinidaePhilonothus sp.110.00
TenebrionidaeAdesmia cancellata19830.0013
Akis elevate14576.17 × 10−4
Blaps kollari381.08 × 10−5
Blaps polychresta40990.0019
Gonocephalum prolixum165.80 × 10−6
Mesostena angustata29900.0015
Pimelia arabica19545.53 × 10−4
Prionotheca coronata8241.06 × 10−4
Zophosis punctate365.80 × 10−6
7030.0954
HimepteraLygaeidaeNymph6535.32 × 10−4
Lethaeus fulvovarius223.86 × 10−7
MiridaeTylorilygus apicalis110.00
PyrrhocoridaeScantius aegypius7207.34 × 10−5
ReduviidaeTriatoma sp.123.86 × 10−7
780.00116
HymenopteraApididaeApis mellifera342.32 × 10−6
FormicidaeCamponotus aegyptiacus446690.0864
Cataglyphis sp.322810.0152
Cataglyphis viticoides9890.0015
Messor meridionalis122300.0102
12730.313
Lepidoptera Larvae9910.0016
ErebidaeEublemma pallidula478.12 × 10−6
NoctuidaeHeliothis peltigera342.32 × 10−6
Spodoptera mauritia353.87 × 10−6
1070.00219
OrthopteraAcrididaeNymph253.87 × 10−6
Scintharista notabilis242.32 × 10−6
GryllidaeNymph8678.55 × 10−4
Gryllodes sigillatus381.08 × 10−5
Gryllus bimaculatus7301.68 × 10−4
1140.00249
Total2275
Table 6. Insect species trapped during summer season (August–September 2023).
Table 6. Insect species trapped during summer season (August–September 2023).
OrderFamilySpecies(+ve) SitesNo.D
ColeopteraCarabidaeAnthia duodecimguttata25510.0012
CoccinellidaeCoccinella undecimpunctata282.62 × 10−6
CurculionidaePycnodactylopsis tomentosa110.00
ElateridaeLacon modestus210.00
ScarabaeidaeMaladera insanabilis2181.43 × 10−4
TenebrionidaeAdesmia cancellata23610.0017
Akis elevata19469.69 × 10−4
Blaps polychresta31730.0025
Mesostena angustata32650.0019
Pimelia arabica14191.60 × 10−4
Prionotheca coronate16171.27 × 10−4
Trachyderma philistina6104.21 × 10−5
3750.0657
HemipteraLygaeidaeDieuches armipes4126.18 × 10−5
Spilostethus pandurus1137.30 × 10−5
PentatomidaePhyllocephala negus232.81 × 10−6
283.54 × 10−4
HymenopteraApididaeApis mellifera110.00
CrabronidaeBembix sp.345.62 × 10−6
FormicidaeCamponotus aegyptiacus363060.0437
Camponotus foraminosus182810.0368
Camponotus sp.182.62 × 10−5
Camponotus wroughtonii141930.0173
Cataglyphis bicolor293.37 × 10−5
Cataglyphis viticoides5480.0011
Messor alalocapius11720.0138
Messor meridioralis1126.18 × 10−5
SphecidaeSphex pruinosus110.00
10350.5010
OrthopteraAcrididaeSchistocerca gregaria4201.78 × 10−4
Scintharista notabilis129.36 × 10−7
GryllidaeGryllodes sigillatus129.36 × 10−7
242.58 × 10−4
Total1462
Table 7. Insect species trapped during autumn season (October–November 2023).
Table 7. Insect species trapped during autumn season (October–November 2023).
OrderFamilySpecies(+ve) SitesNo.D
BlattodeaHodotermitidaeAnacanthotermes ochraceus3165.75 × 10−5
RhinotermitidaePsammotermes hybostoma271.01 × 10−5
230.00012
ColeopteraCarabidaeAmara aulica242.88 × 10−6
Anthia duodecimguttata15630.00093
CoccinellidaeCoccinella undecimpunctata254.79 × 10−6
Coccinella larvae167.19 × 10−6
CurculionidaeHypera brunnipennis331.44 × 10−6
DermestidaeAttagenus lobatus110.00
DyticidaeHydroglyphus signatellus371.01 × 10−5
ElatrididaeLacon modestus7210.00010
ScarabaeidaeAphodius arabicus231.44 × 10−6
Aphodius lividus342.88 × 10−6
Rhyssemus saoudi4209.11 × 10−5
TenebrionidaeAdesmia cancellata43870.00179
Akis elevate22620.000907
Blaps polychresta512360.0133
Mesostena angustata401390.00460
Pimelia arabica361020.00247
Prionotheca coronate8209.11 × 10−5
Trachyderma philistina15780.00144
Larvae281.34 × 10−5
8680.180
HemipteraAphididaeAphis nerii9730.00126
LygaeidaeNymph224.78 × 10−7
Dieuches armipes110.00
Spilostethus pandurus6165.75 × 10−5
PentatomidaePhyllocephala negus110.00
Nymph354.80 × 10−6
RhyparochromidaeBeosus maritimus391.721 × 10−5
1070.00272
HymenopteraMegachilidaeMegachile sp.142.88 × 10−6
CrabronidaeMescophus sp.242.88 × 10−6
FormicidaeCamponotus aegyptiacus151300.00402
Camponotus foraminosus61020.00247
Camponotus sp.6830.00163
Camponotus wroughtonii172580.0159
Cataglyphis bicolor5230.000121
Messor meridioralis272320.0128
SphecidaeAmmophila sp.124.78 × 10−7
Sphex pruinosus231.44 × 10−6
8410.169
LepidopteraErebidaeEublemma pallidula110.00
NoctuidaeHeliothis peltigera224.78 × 10−7
Spodoptera mauritia110.00
Larvae23880.00183
920.0020
OrthopteraAcrididaeCyrtacanthacris tatarica110.00
Schistocerca gregaria124.78 × 10−7
Rtuxalis nasuta110.00
Scintharista notabilis281.34 × 10−5
Nymph30730.00126
Gryllidae Nymph14240.000132
PyrgomorphidaePyrogomorpha conica224.78 × 10−7
2030.00983
Total2042
Table 8. Summary of the distribution of order members during different seasons.
Table 8. Summary of the distribution of order members during different seasons.
OrderSummerAutumnWinterSpringTotal (%)
Blattodea02313036 (0.57%)
Coleoptera3758603267032264 (35.8%)
Hemiptera28100325156 (2.47%)
Hymenoptera103584152312733672 (58.1%)
Lepidoptera0411621 (0.33%)
Orthoptera24149142171 (2.7%)
Total1462184295720596320
ANOVA
Rowsp-value (1.59 × 10−6) < 0.05
Columnsp-value (0.24) > 0.05
mmature stages are not included in this table.
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Alzahrani, A.S.; Kehail, M.A.; Almannaa, S.A.; Alkhalifa, A.H.; Alqahtani, A.M.; Altalhi, M.H.; Alkhamis, H.H.; Alowaifeer, A.M.; Alrefaei, A.F. Seasonal Occurrence and Biodiversity of Insects in an Arid Ecosystem: An Ecological Study of the King Abdulaziz Royal Reserve, Saudi Arabia. Biology 2025, 14, 254. https://doi.org/10.3390/biology14030254

AMA Style

Alzahrani AS, Kehail MA, Almannaa SA, Alkhalifa AH, Alqahtani AM, Altalhi MH, Alkhamis HH, Alowaifeer AM, Alrefaei AF. Seasonal Occurrence and Biodiversity of Insects in an Arid Ecosystem: An Ecological Study of the King Abdulaziz Royal Reserve, Saudi Arabia. Biology. 2025; 14(3):254. https://doi.org/10.3390/biology14030254

Chicago/Turabian Style

Alzahrani, Abdulrahaman S., Moutaman Ali Kehail, Sara A. Almannaa, Areej H. Alkhalifa, Abdulaziz M. Alqahtani, Mohammed H. Altalhi, Hussein H. Alkhamis, Abdullah M. Alowaifeer, and Abdulwahed Fahad Alrefaei. 2025. "Seasonal Occurrence and Biodiversity of Insects in an Arid Ecosystem: An Ecological Study of the King Abdulaziz Royal Reserve, Saudi Arabia" Biology 14, no. 3: 254. https://doi.org/10.3390/biology14030254

APA Style

Alzahrani, A. S., Kehail, M. A., Almannaa, S. A., Alkhalifa, A. H., Alqahtani, A. M., Altalhi, M. H., Alkhamis, H. H., Alowaifeer, A. M., & Alrefaei, A. F. (2025). Seasonal Occurrence and Biodiversity of Insects in an Arid Ecosystem: An Ecological Study of the King Abdulaziz Royal Reserve, Saudi Arabia. Biology, 14(3), 254. https://doi.org/10.3390/biology14030254

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop