Next Article in Journal
Microstructure and Oxidation Behaviors of (TiVCr)2AlC MAX-Phase Coatings Prepared by Magnetron Sputtering
Previous Article in Journal
Research on Mechanized Plasma Gouging of Weldable Construction Steels
Previous Article in Special Issue
Advances in Bacterial Cellulose Production: A Scoping Review
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Coatings
Volume 14
Issue 12
10.3390/coatings14121503
coatings-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Evaluation of the Antimicrobial Effect of Ag Nanoparticles on Nickel–Titanium Archwires in the Presence of Streptococcus mutans Bacteria

by
Sebastián Lozoya
1,
Raquel Duarte Rico
1,
Eder Alejandro Carreón León
2,
Claudia López Meléndez
3,4,
Caleb Carreño-Gallardo
5,
Rosa Margarita Aguilar Madrigal
1 and
Humberto Alejandro Monreal Romero
1,*
1
Department of Biomaterials Science and Nanotechnology, University of Chihuahua (UACH), Avenue University, Chihuahua 31000, Chihuahua, Mexico
2
Clinical Analysis Laboratory, Faculty of Chemical Sciences, University of Chihuahua (UACH), Avenue University, Campus I, Chihuahua 31000, Chihuahua, Mexico
3
Department of Engineering and Materials, La Salle University, Avenue Lómas de Majalca 1120, Chihuahua 31625, Chihuahua, Mexico
4
Faculty of Agrotechnological Science (FACIATEC), University of Chihuahua (UACH), Chihuahua 31000, Chihuahua, Mexico
5
Advanced Materials Research Center, S.C. (CIMAV), National Nanotechnology Laboratory, Avenue M. Cervantes 120, Industrial Complex Chihuahua, Chihuahua 31136, Chihuahua, Mexico
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Coatings 2024, 14(12), 1503; https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings14121503
Submission received: 23 October 2024 / Revised: 26 November 2024 / Accepted: 27 November 2024 / Published: 28 November 2024
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomaterials and Antimicrobial Coatings, 2nd Edition)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
In this study, Streptococcus mutans bacteria were tested on nickel–titanium archwires in the presence of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) as coatings. As a growth control, a well containing the BHI broth and bacterial suspension without silver nanoparticles was inoculated. The test was carried out in triplicate. The NiTi archwires in the presence of artificial saliva were incubated at different exposure times between 0–24 h and 15–30 days, respectively. The archwires were then put in contact with S. mutans to evaluate the AgNPs bactericidal effect. The characterization of AgNPs with NiTi archwires was conducted using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray energy dispersive analysis (EDS), fast fourier transform (FFT), power spectral density (PSD), surface geometry analysis, metal relation analysis, and control process analysis. The results indicate that the bioelectric signal and chemical interaction of NiTi and Ag nanoparticles have an antibacterial effect. In this context, the high wavelength of 17.06 mm and the wave amplitude of 15.66 GL are representative of the light scattering and humidity of the system in which the bacteria and silver nanoparticles interact. The sizes of the Ag nanoparticles in the archwires were less than 150 nm. Under microaerophile conditions, the solution’s pH and temperature were 7.0 at 37 °C, respectively. The NiTi archwires AgNPs functionality and relation to the minimum inhibitory concentration, dominant wavelength in power spectral density, and fast fourier transform analyses were investigated. The analysis was of the interaction between the high and low frequencies of the AgNPs-NiTi archwires and the S. mutans bacteria. This approach opens up a new route for the assessment and management of bacterial growth in various fluids by utilizing alternative biologically acceptable materials.

1. Introduction

The increase in bacterial colonization associated with orthodontic treatment represents a significant clinical challenge. The presence of orthodontic devices creates microenvironments that favor the accumulation of dentobacterial plaque, which can lead to additional complications for oral health, such as enamel demineralization, the formation of carious lesions, and the development of periodontal diseases [1,2]. The oral cavity is home to a diverse community of microorganisms that include viruses, protozoa, fungi, archaea, and bacteria. Unlike the commensal microbiota present in other parts of the body, which generally coexists in balance with the host, the normal microbiota of the mouth plays a fundamental role in the two most prevalent diseases in humans: dental caries and periodontal diseases [3]. Alterations in the oral environment, such as changes in pH and increased acid production induced by orthodontic treatment, are factors that exert a significant impact on opportunistic bacterial strains [4,5]. This facilitates the colonization of microorganisms such as S. mutans, recognized as the main pathogenic agent in dental caries [5,6,7,8,9]. S. mutans is a gram-positive, coccus-shaped bacterium that is part of the normal flora of the oral cavity and becomes pathogenic under circumstances that promote prolonged acidification [10]. This microorganism is recognized as the main causal agent of dental caries and is commonly found in the oral cavity, from where it can spread and, in severe cases, cause endocarditis in individuals with risk factors. It has been documented that 25% of patients who develop bacteremia of odontogenic origin have a history of orthodontic treatment [11]. Therefore, sometimes there may be difficulty in maintaining adequate oral hygiene due to the use of fixed wires such as NiTi archwires. These archwires, widely used in the initial phase for their flexibility, shape memory, and resistance, facilitate the alignment and leveling of the teeth. However, it has been documented that these devices can fracture and corrode, increasing friction and favoring bacterial adhesion in critical areas [12,13,14]. In response to these challenges, the use of coatings with silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) has been introduced. This approach offers a promising antimicrobial solution against S. mutans, reducing bacterial adherence to orthodontic devices [15]. Furthermore, it contributes significantly to treatment optimization by reducing friction, surface roughness, and corrosion, while improving the mechanical resistance of orthodontic devices and effectively controlling forces during orthodontic movements [16,17,18,19,20]. Additionally, the shape memory and superelasticity properties, derived from the austenitic to martensitic phase transition, stand out among the characteristics of NiTi alloys. This makes them excellent materials for their application in the initial phase of orthodontic treatment, which encompasses alignment and dental leveling [21]. Furthermore, NiTi archwires possess remarkable corrosion resistance, a crucial attribute given their constant exposure to corrosive environments such as saliva [22]. In this context, the antibacterial properties of nanoparticles in the oral cavity have been explored through two main approaches: the integration of nanoparticles in dental materials or the application of surface coatings to prevent microbial adhesion, with the general objective of reducing biofilm formation [23,24,25]. The application of coatings is one of the methods available to modify the surface of materials [26]. Recently, orthodontic materials, such as brackets, tubes, bands, and ligatures, have been commercially developed with nanostructured coatings synthesized with antibacterial nanoparticles [26,27,28,29]. Additionally, the use of silver nanoparticles can improve the aesthetics, mechanics, bioavailability, and corrosion characteristics of the NiTi archwires.
Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) positively modify the physical and chemical properties of the materials used in orthodontics, which contributes to optimizing their clinical performance [30,31,32]. These silver coatings are commonly employed due to their biocompatibility, superior antimicrobial effect, and effective antibiotic characteristics against antibiotic-resistant microorganisms [33,34,35]. Furthermore, they are notable for their lack of significant cytotoxic, mutagenic, or irritative effects [36]. Nanoparticles have been used as components of dry lubricants, which are solid-phase materials capable of reducing friction between two sliding surfaces without the need for a liquid medium [37]. Silver nanoparticle coatings have been proposed as the most effective type of material among nanoparticles to prevent the growth of S. mutans around brackets and wires [20,38,39]. This underlines the antibacterial properties of silver nanoparticles and their potential use in the prevention of oral diseases [11,38,40,41,42,43,44,45,46]. Previous studies have shown that silver nanoparticle coatings have the ability to release silver ions sustainably over a period of four to seven months.
In this context, the size of the silver nanoparticles does not significantly affect their long-term antibacterial efficacy. Hence, coatings containing silver nanoparticles represent a promising alternative for the advancement of novel biomaterials in orthodontics [37,47,48,49]. Likewise, various methods have emerged for the incorporation of nanoparticles in different materials, such as physical vapor deposition (PVD), vacuum deposition, sputter deposition, electrodeposition, deposition using simulated body serum, the biomimetic method, sol-gel, spray pyrolysis, and electrospinning, among others [26,50,51,52,53,54,55,56,57,58,59,60,61,62,63]. Similarly, nanoparticles of metal oxides such as Ag, Pd, and Pt have been synthesized as agents against the effects of corrosion, aggregation, agglomeration, and great antimicrobial activity [64,65,66]. Silver nanoparticles offer various applications in areas such as endodontic treatment, materials in orthodontic treatment, and dental implant treatment, improving their antimicrobial activity [49]. Various investigations have shown some interaction routes of silver nanoparticles in bacterial cell metabolism, in which electrostatic interactions of the cell wall with carboxyl groups can be observed, generating a mechanism of toxins liberation [67,68,69]. Another important aspect of discussion regarding the activity of silver nanoparticles is the toxic effects it may have on various organs or systems such as the heart, kidneys, liver, skeletal system, nervous system, oral mucosa, tongue, and gums.
However, the mechanism of its toxicity is not clear today, due to the application of different concentrations used. In this work, we have evaluated the antimicrobial effect of Ag nanoparticles on Nickel–Titanium archwires in the presence of S. mutans bacteria.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Determination of the Minimum Inhibitory Concentration of Silver Nanoparticles

The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of silver nanoparticles (Silver, nanopowder <150 nm, 99%, Sigma-Aldrich®, St. Louis, MO, USA) was determined by the broth microdilution method [70]. Using a brain heart infusion (BHI, BD Bioxon, Franklin Lakes, NJ, USA) broth, using the strain S. mutans ATCC 25175 to prove the MIC, the AgNPs concentrations were the following: 1024, 512, 256, 128, 64, 32, 16, 8, 4, and 2 micrograms per milliliter [μg/mL]. Afterwards, as a growth control, a well containing the BHI solution and bacterial suspension without silver nanoparticles was inoculated, and as a sterility control, a well was filled only with sterile BHI. The test was carried out in triplicate.

2.2. Evaluation of NiTi Archwires with AgNPs in Artificial Saliva

For the evaluation of NiTi archwires with AgNPs in artificial saliva, the following procedure was performed: the NiTi archwires, which were 1 cm long, were immersed in 2 milliliters (mL) of artificial saliva (© Viarden Lab 2020 250 mL, Mission, TX, USA) at pH 7.0 at 37 °C. This procedure contains reagents such as water, xylitol, gum, Na+, F−, K+, Cl2−, Ca++, PO42−, and Mg++, and it is important to avoid precipitation. Subsequently, the NiTi archwires were incubated under these conditions at different exposure times: 0 h (as a control), 24 h, 15 days, and 30 days, to evaluate the wastage of AgNPs on NiTi archwires. The artificial saliva was changed every 72 h under sterile conditions. This allows for maintaining the concentration of the chemical compounds and, thus, prevents their aging. After that time, the artificial saliva was removed and the archwires were placed in 1 mL of BHI broth to subsequently add 1 mL of a 1:100 dilution of bacterial suspension of the McFarland 0.5 standard of Streptococcus mutans ATCC 25175. The final concentration was 7.5 × 105, and finally, they were incubated for 24 h at 37 °C. The incubation process was to allow bacterial growth. Subsequently, the archwires were removed from the bacterial suspension to proceed with their characterization by SEM and to observe the morphological characteristics.

2.3. Characterization of NiTi Archwires AgNPs in the Presence of S. mutans

The analysis of NiTi archwire fragments with AgNPs in the presence of S. mutans was conducted using a field emission scanning electron microscope (FESEM) JEOL-JCSM-7401F (Tokyo, Japan). It included EDX spectroscopy analysis. The archwires were placed in a holder with an acceleration voltage of 2.0 kV and a magnification of 10,000.
The images were processed using surface analysis software from Mountains Lab Premium 9.0. With this software, the following analysis techniques were carried out: material relation analysis, (PSD) analysis, (FFT) analysis, and surface geometry analysis. Furthermore, to conduct the PSD analysis, the parameters of wavelength, maximum amplitude, dominant wave, and a zoom factor of 4× were selected. In addition, for the FFT analysis, parameters such as the output frequency domain, image texture, and edges of the objects were chosen.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Cell Culture of the S. mutans

Figure 1a,b shows the culture obtained from the S. mutans ATCC 25175 strain, with characteristic morphology of the white colonies, with defined, firm edges, and with evident adherence to the culture medium, from 1 to 2 mm in diameter. It is surrounded by a zone of partial lysis of the erythrocytes present in the culture medium, which reflects an alpha-type hemolysis with a green halo.

3.2. Analysis of the Determination of the Minimum Inhibitory Concentration

Figure 2 shows the analysis of the results for MIC AgNPs in the presence of the bacterial strain S. mutans ATCC 25175. It was observed that high concentrations of AgNPs 1024 μg/mL only showed inhibition of bacterial growth in one of the triplicate tests. This suggests that the effectiveness of this concentration may vary depending on the specific conditions or sensitivity of the organism. Additionally, the rest of the AgNPs concentration corresponding to 512 μg/mL, 256 μg/mL, 128 μg/mL, 64 μg/mL, 32 μg/mL, 16 μg/mL, 8 μg/mL, 4 μg/mL and 2 μg/mL, respectively, did not present bacterial inhibition. Therefore, the MIC was determined to be higher than 1024 μg/mL. The results indicate that the highest concentrations of AgNPs were not effective in inhibiting bacterial growth.

3.3. Characterization of NiTi Archwires in the Absence of Silver Nanoparticles and S. mutans by SEM

In Figure 3, we looked at the surface of the archwires without silver nanoparticles and S. mutans, through a field emission scanning microscope. In Figure 4, EDX spectroscopy was used to identify the elemental chemical composition of the samples. The presence of elements such as C, Ni, and Ti was detected.

3.4. Characterization of NiTi Archwires in the Presence of S. mutans and AgNPs by SEM

The existence of bacteria in NiTi archwires with silver nanoparticles can be observed according to the results of Figure 5 in SEM. It is evident that the S. mutans bacteria are present on the surface of the archwires. In Figure 6, the selected regions are observed during an EDX spectroscopy analysis of the conglomerates, revealing the presence of elements such as Ag, Ti, and Ni. Furthermore, it can be seen that certain bacteria begin the stage of bacterial death, even observing a different morphology in the microscopy carried out; however, in the image, the characteristic morphology of a Streptococcus can be seen, in a chain, in Figure 5. Additionally, the thickness of the coating was 10 nm.

3.5. Control Graph of NiTi Archwires-AgNPs

Figure 7 shows the control graph of the process. It can be seen that most of the points are close to the midline of the control (dotted line). There are three points that are above the midline. This behavior is normal because there are causes that are inherent to the process, such as pH, temperature, bacterial concentration, and metal–cell interaction. Likewise, the percentage of performance was 91.50% with a variance of 5078 (mm2)2. Therefore, the AgNPs–S. mutans complex is stable and under statistical control in these conditions. Additionally, our current study does not contemplate the analysis of the effect of pH and temperature variations on the stability of the bacteria, but this will be investigated in subsequent works.

3.6. Fast Fourier Transform Analysis

Figure 8 shows the frequency spectrum of the fast fourier transformation, which represents the general pattern of silver nanoparticles with S. mutans. It is evident that parts with a high-intensity level are retained. The sections of the archwires that represent the abrupt fluctuations in their intensity levels, specifically high frequencies, resulting from the nanoparticles (light points), have been extracted. On the other hand, the more attenuated parts represent low frequencies caused by the S. mutans bacteria due to the bioelectric mechanism that serves for the proliferation of its activity. The value of power in relation to carrier (dBc) analysis of −44.86 indicates that the silver nanoparticles possess a greater power in the carrier signal than in the input signal. This way, more power means more molecular interaction, which makes the union stronger. In this way, when the aggregates of the bacteria are formed, the high frequencies can mobilize and destabilize the aggregates, providing voltage-dependent ionic transport. Furthermore, the frequency width of the fast fourier transformation can be normalized through the power spectral density, processing the signal amplitude. Additionally, Figure 9 shows the frequency spectrum of NiTi archwires in the absence of AgNPs; in this result, no abrupt changes in intensity levels are observed.

3.7. Power Spectral Density (PSD) Analysis

Figure 10 shows the characterization of the silver nanoparticles in the presence of the S. mutans bacteria using a power spectral density analysis. The area of the square of the curve that corresponds to the energy of the signal is shown. The results are unique in representing the function of the agglomerates absorption capacity and the property of the silver nanoparticles to scatter light emissions. The peak energy corresponding to the wavelength presents a maximum peak of 17.06 mm with an amplitude of 15.66 GL. The graph shows a wavelength curve at 13.52 mm. Ti, Ni, and silver nanoparticles interact to form peaks that contain force periodicity signals, which control the activation of the growth of the bacteria. Additionally, the oscillation of the level of polarization of the silver nanoparticles can represent an interaction between the high and low frequencies of the AgNPs-NiTi archwires and the S. mutans bacteria, generating an equilibrium of the electric fields. Some studies report the antibacterial effect of silver nanoparticles, in the presence of silica nanoparticulate dispersions, using S. mutans, but not using electric fields [71]. Figure 11 depicts the PSD analysis of NiTi archwires in the absence of AgNPs. The results show a maximum peak at 0.7680 µm and a dominant wavelength at 0.01843 µm.

3.8. Coefficient of Determination R2

The nanoparticles present a homogeneous morphology, and the R2 correlation data establish the existence of a positive relationship with a value of one, due to the minimal dispersion of the data. This relationship demonstrates that the interaction system of the formation of silver nanoparticles and S. mutans bacteria can be replicated 100%, as shown in Figure 12. Furthermore, the nanoparticles have a mean of 1.967 and a standard deviation of 3.745.

3.9. Texture Isotropy Analysis

A textural isotropy analysis was done to determine the directional uniformity parameters of silver nanoparticles in the presence of S. mutans bacteria. Figure 13 shows the characteristics of the direction of the surface texture direction, as shown by the direction of the surface texture direction. The obtained values indicated an isotropy of 37.34%, a first direction of 141.2°, a second direction of 158.3°, and a third direction of 122.0°, respectively. These findings demonstrate the isotropic nature of the system, preserving the uniformity of surface characteristics in all directions. Numerous microorganisms, including lactic acid bacteria, acetic bacteria, yeast, and fungi, have been examined. However, systems such as the one proposed in this work have not been thoroughly examined [72]. Moreover, the position of each point on the surface of the sphere is shown by the angle degrees that correspond to how many grains in the sample rotate in different directions. The isotropic texture of the complex corresponds to the isotropic texture of the complex because the diverse aggregates that contain the NiTi-AgNPs are evenly distributed. This allows a greater scope of the antimicrobial activity of silver nanoparticles.

3.10. Material Relation Analysis

Figure 14 shows the histogram of the relationship between the height distribution and the cumulative depth function of the NiTi archwires in the presence of silver nanoparticles and S. mutans bacteria. It can be seen that there is a height difference of 6.453 µm between the material ratio points (Pmr1) and (Pmr2), as well as the individual values of −3.03 and 3.423 µm, respectively. These results reveal the extent of the inhibition activity of NiTi archwires in the presence of silver nanoparticles on the bacteria S. mutans. This inhibition activity is probably due to the interruption of the signaling pathway mechanism of the formation of peptidoglycan in the cell wall of the bacteria. In this sense, bacteria cannot form a strong cell wall, which causes cell death. In this way, the nanoparticles release silver ions, exerting molecular self-assembly with sulfhydryl groups, causing the death of the bacteria due to the effect of oxidative stress generated by the high frequencies of the NiTi–AgNPs complex [73].

4. Conclusions

In this study, we reported the participation of Ag nanoparticles on NiTi archwires using the bacteria S. mutans. The investigation is applicable to other disciplines, such as microbiology, medical engineering in the production of biosensors, biomaterials in the tissue engineering area, nanotechnology, materials research, dental materials, or dentofacial orthopedics as implants. The rapid fourier transformation confirms the high frequency of NiTi archwires-AgNPs. In conclusion, the NiTi archwires-AgNPs were examined to determine their effects on the antimicrobial viability and cell death of the S. mutans bacteria. Moreover, the proposed mechanism and the aforementioned characteristics hold significant significance in analyzing the effects of the inhibition mechanism of the bacteria and analyzing various variables, such as bioelectric activity, molecular self-assembly, and the synthesis of peptidoglycans. The material relation values detected in the material relation analysis, with a value of 6.453 M, highlight the binding between AgNPs and the S. mutans system. The confirmation of the functional activity of NiTi archwires AgNPs was confirmed by FESEM in terms of morphological and chemistry characteristics. The study of biosynthesized silver nanoparticles in contact with Streptococcus mutans establishes a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) greater than 1024 μg/mL; these results could be used to establish new tests at higher concentrations. Other studies could encompass the inhibition of biofilms, cytotoxicity tests, and biocompatibility studies of orthodontic devices by utilizing coatings of AgNPs.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, R.D.R. and H.A.M.R.; Methodology, S.L.; Software, H.A.M.R.; Validation, S.L. and H.A.M.R.; Formal analysis, S.L., R.D.R. and H.A.M.R.; Investigation, S.L., R.D.R. and E.A.C.L.; Data curation, C.L.M., C.C.-G. and R.M.A.M.; Writing—original draft, R.D.R.; Supervision, H.A.M.R. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Data are contained within the article.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

  1. Mhaske, A.; Shetty, P.; Bhat, N.; Ramachandra, C.; Laxmikanth, S.; Nagarahalli, K. Antiadherent and antibacterial properties of stainless steel and NiTi orthodontic wires coated with silver against Lactobacillus acidophilus—An in vitro study. Prog. Orthod. 2015, 16, 1–6. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  2. Perkowski, K.; Baltaza, W.; Conn, D.; Marczyńska, M.; Chomicz, L. Examination of oral biofilm microbiota in patients using fixed orthodontic appliances in order to prevent risk factors for health complications. Ann. Agric. Environ. Med. 2019, 26, 231–235. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  3. Wade, W. The oral microbiome in health and disease. Pharmacol. Res. 2013, 69, 137–143. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  4. Warreth, A. Dental Caries and Its Management. Int. J. Dent. 2023, 9, 36–58. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Karadas, M.; Cantekin, K.; Celikoglu, M. Effects of orthodontic treatment with a fixed appliance on the caries experience of patients with high and low risk of caries. J. Dent. Sci. 2011, 6, 195–199. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Ogaard, B.; Rølla, G.; Arends, J. Orthodontic appliances and enamel demineralization. Lesion development. Am. J. Orthod. Dentofac. Orthop. 1988, 94, 68–73. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Velazquez, U.; Scougall, R.; Contreras, R.; Flores, J.; Uematsu, S.; Yamaguchi, R. Adhesion of Streptococci to various orthodontic composite resins. Aust. Dent. J. 2013, 58, 101–105. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Lucchese, A.; Gherlone, E. Prevalence of white-spot lesions before and during orthodontic treatment with fixed appliances. Eur. J. Orthod. 2013, 35, 664–668. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Jeevarathan, J.; Deepti, A.; Muthu, M.; Rathna, V.; Chamundeeswari, G. Effect of fluoride varnish on Streptococcus mutans counts in plaque of caries-free children using Dentocult SM strip mutans test: A randomized controlled tripleblind study. J. Indian Soc. Pedod. Prev. Dent. 2007, 25, 157–163. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Jordan, C.; LeBlanc, D. Influences of orthodontic appliances on oral populations of mutans streptococci. Oral. Microbiol. Immunol. 2002, 17, 65–71. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Parahitiyawa, N.B.; Jin, L.J.; Leung, W.K.; Yam, W.C.; Samaranayake, L.P. Microbiology of odontogenic bacteremia: Beyond endocarditis. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 2009, 22, 46–64. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  12. Dong, Y.; Sun, X. Antibacterial Mechanism of Nanosilvers. Curr. Pharmacol. Rep. 2019, 5, 401–409. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Salgado, I.; Beatriz, A.; Navarro, N.; Coleta, K.; Araujo, A.; De, O. Antimicrobial Orthodontic Wires Coated with Silver Nanoparticles. Braz. Arch. Biol. Technol. 2020, 63, e20190339. [Google Scholar]
  14. Abraham, S.; Jagdish, N.; Kailasam, V.; Padmanabhan, S. Streptococcus mutans adhesion on nickel titanium (NiTi) and copper-NiTi archwires: A comparative prospective clinical study. Angle Orthod. 2017, 87, 448–454. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Junior, V.; Targino, A.; Pelagio, A.; Rodríguez, J.; Teixeira, J.; Heimer, M. Antimicrobial activity of silver nanoparticle colloids of different sizes and shapes against Streptococcus mutans. Res. Chem. Intermed. 2017, 43, 5889–5899. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Ghasemi, T.; Arash, V.; Rabiee, S.; Rajabnia, R.; Pourzare, A.; Rakhshan, V. Antimicrobial effect frictional resistance, and surface roughness of stainless steel orthodontic brackets coated with nanofilms of silver and titanium oxide: A preliminary study. Microsc. Res. Tech. 2017, 80, 599–607. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Ryu, S.; Bae, H.; Lee, K.; Hwang, S.; Lee, H.; Koh, T. Antibacterial effect of silver-platinum coating for orthodontic appliances. Angle Orthod. 2012, 82, 15–17. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Hernández, E.; Lara, E.; Robles, B.; Scougall, J.; Hernández, S.; Medina, E. Biosynthesis of Silver Nanoparticles on Orthodontic Elastomeric Modules: Evaluation of Mechanical and Antibacterial Properties. Molecules 2017, 22, 1407. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Borzabadi-Farahani, A.; Borzabadi, E.; Lynch, E. Nanoparticles in orthodontics, a review of antimicrobial and anti-caries applications. Acta Odontol. Scand. 2014, 72, 413–417. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Zakrzewski, W.; Dobrzynski, M.; Dobrzynski, W.; Zawadzka, A.; Janecki, M.; Kurek, K. Nanomaterials Application in Orthodontics. Nanomaterials 2021, 11, 337. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Uysal, I.; Yilmaz, B.; Atilla, A.; Evis, Z. Nickel titanium alloys as orthodontic archwires: A narrative review. Eng. Sci. Technol. Int. J. 2022, 36, 101–277. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Močnik, P.; Kosec, T. A Critical Appraisal of the Use and Properties of Nickel–Titanium Dental Alloys. Materials 2021, 14, 7859. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  23. Monteiro, R.; Gorup, F.; Takamiya, S.; Ruvollo, C.; De, R.; Barbosa, B. The growing importance of materials that prevent microbial adhesion: Antimicrobial effect of medical devices containing silver. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents 2009, 34, 103–110. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  24. Hannig, M.; Kriener, L.; Hoth, W.; Becker, C.; Schmidt, H. Influence of nanocomposite surface coating on biofilm formation in situ. J. Nanosci. Nanotechnol. 2007, 7, 4642–4648. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Allaker, R.P. The use of nanoparticles to control oral biofilm formation. J. Dent. Res. 2010, 89, 1175–1186. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Bącela, J.; Łabowska, M.B.; Detyna, J.; Zięty, A.; Michalak, I. Functional coatings for orthodontic archwires—A review. Materials 2020, 13, 3257. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Sfondrini, M.F.; Cacciafesta, V.; Maffia, E.; Massironi, S.; Scribante, A.; Alberti, G.; Biesuz, R.; Klersy, C. Chromium release from new stainless steel, recycled and nickel-free orthodontic brackets. Angle Orthod. 2009, 79, 361–367. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Nambi, N.; Shrinivaasan, N.R.; Dhayananth, L.; Chajallani, V.; George, A. Renaissance in orthodontics: Nanotechnology. Int. J. Orthod. Rehabil. 2016, 7, 139. [Google Scholar]
  29. Umalkar, G.; Jawale, A.; Patil, S. Review application of nanotechnology in orthodontics: A critical review. Int. J. Clin. Orthod. 2017, 1, 9–12. [Google Scholar]
  30. Metin, G.; Taner, L.; Akca, G. Nanosilver coated orthodontic brackets: In vivo antibacterial properties and ion release. Eur. J. Orthod. 2017, 39, 9–16. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Rai, M.; Yadav, A.; Gade, A. Silver nanoparticles as a new generation of antimicrobials. Biotechnol. Adv. 2009, 27, 76–83. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  32. Ogaard, B.; Rølla, G.; Arends, J.; ten Cate, J.M. Orthodontic appliances and enamel demineralization. Prevention and treatment of lesions. Am. J. Orthod. Dentofac. Orthop. 1988, 94, 123–128. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  33. Fatani, J.; Almutairi, H.; Alharbi, O.; Alnakhli, O.; Divakar, D. Muzaheed, In vitro assessment of stainless steel orthodontic brackets coated with titanium oxide mixed Ag foranti-adherent and antibacterial properties against Streptococcus mutans and Porphyromonas gingivalis. Microb. Pathog. 2017, 112, 190–194. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  34. Fayaz, M.; Balaji, K.; Girilal, M.; Yadav, R.; Kalaichelvan, P.T.; Venketesan, R. Biogenic synthesis of silver nanoparticles and their synergistic effect with antibiotics: A study against gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. Nanomedicine 2010, 6, 103–109. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. Niska, K.; Knap, N.; Kędzia, A.; Jaskiewicz, M.; Kamysz, W.; Inkielewicz Stepniak, I. Capping agent-dependent toxicity and antimicrobial activity of silver nanoparticles: An in vitro study. Concerns about potential application in dental practice. Int. J. Med. Sci. 2016, 13, 772–782. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  36. Brandt, O.; Mildner, M.; Egger, A.E.; Groessl, M.; Rix, U.; Posch, M.; Keppler, B.K.; Strupp, C.; Mueller, B.; Stingl, G. Nanoscalic silver possesses broad-spectrum antimicrobial activities and exhibits fewer toxicological side effects than silver sulfadiazine. Nanomedicine 2012, 8, 478–488. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Mazumder, J.; Khatoon, N.; Batra, P.; Sardar, M. Biosynthesized silver nanoparticles for orthodontic applications. Adv. Sci. Eng. Med. 2018, 10, 1169–1173. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Redlich, M.; Katz, A.; Rapoport, L.; Wagner, H.D.; Feldman, Y.; Tenne, R. Improved orthodontic stainless-steel wires coated with inorganic fullerene-like nanoparticles of WS2 impregnated in electroless nickel–phosphorous film. Dent. Mater. 2008, 24, 1640–1646. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Bapat, A.; Chaubal, V.; Joshi, P.; Bapat, R.; Choudhury, H.; Pandey, M. An overview of application of silver nanoparticles for biomaterials in dentistry. Mater. Sci. Eng. C Mater. Biol. Appl. 2018, 91, 881–898. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Espinosa, L.; López, N.; Cabada, D.; Reyes, S.; Zaragoza, E.; Constandse, D. Antiadherence and antimicrobial properties of silver nanoparticles against Streptococcus mutans on brackets and wires used for orthodontic treatments. J. Nanomater. 2018, 2018, 9248527. [Google Scholar]
  41. Amiri, M.; Etemadifar, Z.; Daneshkazemi, A.; Nateghi, M. Antimicrobial effect of copper oxide nanoparticles on some oral bacteria and Candida species. J. Dent. Biomater. 2017, 4, 347–352. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
  42. Chun, J.; Shim, E.; Kho, H.; Park, J.; Jung, J.; Kim, M. Surface modification of orthodontic wires with photocatalytic titanium oxide for its antiadherent and antibacterial properties. Angle Orthod. 2007, 77, 483–488. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  43. Degrazia, W.; Leitune, C.; Garcia, M.; Arthur, A.; Samuel, M.; Collares, M. Effect of silver nanoparticles on the physicochemical and antimicrobial properties of an orthodontic adhesive. J. Appl. Oral. Sci. 2016, 24, 404–410. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  44. Pérez, A.; Boegli, L.; James, G.; Velasquillo, C.; Sánchez, R.; Martínez, E. Silver nanoparticles with antimicrobial activities against Streptococcus mutans and their cytotoxic effect. Mater. Sci. Eng. C Mater. Biol. Appl. 2015, 55, 360–366. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. Jasso, I.; Velazquez, U.; Scougall, J.; Morales-Luckie, R.A.; Sawada, T.; Yamaguchi, R. Silver nanoparticles in orthodontics, a new alternative in bacterial inhibition: In vitro study. Prog. Orthod. 2020, 21, 1–8. [Google Scholar]
  46. Song, W.; Ge, S. Application of antimicrobial nanoparticles in dentistry. Molecules 2019, 24, 1033. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. Cunningham, B.; Engstrom, A.; Harper, B.; Harper, S.; Mackiewicz, M. Silver Nanoparticles Stable to Oxidation and Silver Ion Release Show Size-Dependent Toxicity In Vivo. Nanomaterials 2021, 11, 1516. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Shivaram, A.; Bose, S.; Bandyopadhyay, A. Understanding long-term silver release from surface modified porous titanium implants. Acta Biomater. 2017, 58, 550–560. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Yin, I.X.; Zhang, J.; Zhao, I.S.; Mei, M.L.; Li, Q.; Chu, C.H. The Antibacterial Mechanism of Silver Nanoparticles and Its Application in Dentistry. Int. J. Nanomed. 2020, 15, 2555–2562. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  50. Arango, S.; Peláez, A.; García, C. Coating and Surface Treatments on Orthodontic Metallic Materials. Coatings 2013, 3, 1–15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  51. Tripi, T.; Bonaccorso, A.; Condorelli, G. Fabrication of hard coatings on NiTi instruments. J. Endod. 2003, 29, 132–134. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  52. Makhlouf, A.; Tiginyanu, I. Current and advanced coating technologies for industrial applications. In Nanocoatings and Ultra-Thin Films; Woodhead Publishing: Cambridge, UK, 2011; pp. 3–23. [Google Scholar]
  53. Pietrantonio, F.; Cannatà, D.; Benetti, M. Biosensor Technologies Based on Nanomaterials; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2019; pp. 181–242. [Google Scholar]
  54. He, L.; Dai, D.; Xie, L.; Chen, Y.; Zhang, C. Biological effects, applications and strategies of nanomodification of dental metal surfaces. Mater. Des. 2021, 207, 109890. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  55. Sobha, J.D. Electrodeposition: The Versatile Technique for Nanomaterials; Woodhead Publishing: Cambridge, UK, 2012; pp. 86–125. [Google Scholar]
  56. Meyer, V.; Doll, K.; Stiesch, M.; Schwestka, R.; Demling, A. Comparison of intraoral biofilm reduction on silver-coated and silver ion-implanted stainless steel bracket material: Biofilm reduction on silver ion-implanted bracket material. J. Orofac. Orthop. 2019, 80, 32–43. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  57. Arash, V.; Keikhaee, F.; Rabiee, S.; Rajabnia, R.; Khafri, S.; Tavanafar, S. Evaluation of Antibacterial Effects of Silver-Coated Stainless Steel Orthodontic Brackets. J. Dent. 2016, 13, 49–54. [Google Scholar]
  58. Kokubo, T.; Takadama, H. How useful is SBF in predicting in vivo bone bioactivity? Biomaterials 2006, 27, 2907–2915. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  59. Kokubo, T.; Kushitani, H.; Sakka, S.; Kitsugi, T.; Yamamuro, T. Solutions able to reproduce in vivo surface-structure changes in bioactive glass-ceramic A-W. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. 1990, 24, 721–734. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  60. Varela, L.; Reyes, E.; Rubio, E. Crecimiento en fluido fisiológico simulado de hidroxiapatita sobre películas de PMMA-sílice-CaO. Superf. Y Vacío. 2011, 24, 92–95. [Google Scholar]
  61. Barrere, F.; Blitterswijk, C.; Groot, K.; Layrolle, P. Influence of ionic strength and carbonate on the Ca-P coating formation from SBFx5 solution. Biomaterials 2002, 23, 1921–1930. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  62. Barrere, F.; Van, C.; De, K.; Layrolle, P. Nucleation of biomimetic Ca-P coatings on ti6A14V from a SBF x 5 solution: Influence of magnesium. Biomaterials 2002, 23, 2211–2220. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  63. Khandel, P.; Shahi, K. Mycogenic nanoparticles and their bio-prospective applications: Current status and future challenges. J. Nanostruct. Chem. 2018, 8, 369–391. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  64. Vaseghi, Z.; Nematollahzadeh, A.; Tavakoli, O. Green methods for the synthesis of metal nanoparticles using biogenic reducing agents: A review. Rev. Chem. Eng. 2018, 34, 529–559. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  65. Durán, N.; Seabra, B. Metallic oxide nanoparticles: State of the art in biogenic syntheses and their mechanisms. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2012, 95, 275–288. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  66. Capeness, J.; Echavarri, V.; Horsfall, E. Production of biogenic nanoparticles for the reduction of 4-Nitrophenol and oxidative laccase-like reactions. Front. Microbiol. 2019, 10, 997. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  67. Patil, S.; Chandrasekaran, R. Biogenic nanoparticles: A comprehensive perspective in synthesis, characterization, application and its challenges. J. Genet. Eng. Biotechnol. 2020, 18, 23–67. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  68. Siddiqi, S.; Husen, A.; Rao, K. A review on biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles and their biocidal properties. J. Nanobiotechnol. 2018, 16, 1–28. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  69. Grasso, G.; Zane, D.; Dragone, R. Microbial nanotechnology: Challenges and prospects for green biocatalytic synthesis of nanoscale materials for sensoristic and biomedical applications. Nanomaterials 2019, 10, 11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  70. Wiegand, I.; Hilpert, K.; Hancock, R. Agar and broth dilution methods to determine the minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) of antimicrobial substances. Nat. Protoc. 2008, 3, 163–175. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  71. Besinis, A.; Peralta, T.; Richard, H. The antibacterial effects of silver, titanium dioxide and silica dioxide nanoparticles compared to the dental disinfectant chlorhexidine on Streptococcus mutans using a suite of bioassays. Nanotoxicology 2014, 8, 1–16. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  72. Matos, R.S.; Pinheiro, B.S.; Souza, I.S.; de Castro, R.R.P.; Ramos, G.Q.; Pinto, E.P.; Silva Jr, R.S.; da Fonseca Filho, H.D. 3D micromorphology evaluation of kefir microbial films loaded with extract of Amazon rainforest fruit Cupuaçu. Micron 2021, 142, 10–29. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  73. Rajendra, P.; Pandit, S.; Filippis, A.; Franci, G.; Mijakovic, I.; Galdiero, M. Silver Nanoparticles: Bactericidal and Mechanistic Approach against Drug Resistant Pathogens. Microorganisms 2023, 11, 369. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Coatings 14 01503 g001
Figure 1. (a) Cell culture of the S. mutans Clarke ATCC strain; (b) Growth of the S. mutans Clarke ATCC strain.
Figure 1. (a) Cell culture of the S. mutans Clarke ATCC strain; (b) Growth of the S. mutans Clarke ATCC strain.
Coatings 14 01503 g001
Coatings 14 01503 g002
Figure 2. Determination of the MIC of AgNPs on the S. mutans.
Figure 2. Determination of the MIC of AgNPs on the S. mutans.
Coatings 14 01503 g002
Coatings 14 01503 g003
Figure 3. NiTi Archwires in the absence of AgNPs and S. mutans.
Figure 3. NiTi Archwires in the absence of AgNPs and S. mutans.
Coatings 14 01503 g003
Coatings 14 01503 g004
Figure 4. EDX spectroscopy of NiTi archwires in the absence of AgNPs and S. mutans.
Figure 4. EDX spectroscopy of NiTi archwires in the absence of AgNPs and S. mutans.
Coatings 14 01503 g004
Coatings 14 01503 g005
Figure 5. NiTi Archwires in the presence of S. mutans and AgNPs.
Figure 5. NiTi Archwires in the presence of S. mutans and AgNPs.
Coatings 14 01503 g005
Coatings 14 01503 g006
Figure 6. EDX spectroscopy of NiTi archwires in the presence of AgNPs and S. mutans.
Figure 6. EDX spectroscopy of NiTi archwires in the presence of AgNPs and S. mutans.
Coatings 14 01503 g006
Coatings 14 01503 g007
Figure 7. Control graph of NiTi archwires-AgNPs and S. mutans.
Figure 7. Control graph of NiTi archwires-AgNPs and S. mutans.
Coatings 14 01503 g007
Coatings 14 01503 g008
Figure 8. The frequency spectrum of NiTi archwires-AgNPs with S. mutans.
Figure 8. The frequency spectrum of NiTi archwires-AgNPs with S. mutans.
Coatings 14 01503 g008
Coatings 14 01503 g009
Figure 9. The frequency spectrum of NiTi archwires in the absence of AgNPs.
Figure 9. The frequency spectrum of NiTi archwires in the absence of AgNPs.
Coatings 14 01503 g009
Coatings 14 01503 g010
Figure 10. Power spectral density (PSD) analysis.
Figure 10. Power spectral density (PSD) analysis.
Coatings 14 01503 g010
Coatings 14 01503 g011
Figure 11. Power spectral density (PSD) analysis in the absence of AgNPs.
Figure 11. Power spectral density (PSD) analysis in the absence of AgNPs.
Coatings 14 01503 g011
Coatings 14 01503 g012
Figure 12. Coefficient of determination R2 of NiTi archwires-AgNPs with S. mutans.
Figure 12. Coefficient of determination R2 of NiTi archwires-AgNPs with S. mutans.
Coatings 14 01503 g012
Coatings 14 01503 g013
Figure 13. Texture isotropy analysis of NiTi archwires-AgNPs with S. mutans.
Figure 13. Texture isotropy analysis of NiTi archwires-AgNPs with S. mutans.
Coatings 14 01503 g013
Coatings 14 01503 g014
Figure 14. Material relation of NiTi archwires-AgNPs with S. mutans.
Figure 14. Material relation of NiTi archwires-AgNPs with S. mutans.
Coatings 14 01503 g014
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Lozoya, S.; Rico, R.D.; León, E.A.C.; López Meléndez, C.; Carreño-Gallardo, C.; Madrigal, R.M.A.; Monreal Romero, H.A. Evaluation of the Antimicrobial Effect of Ag Nanoparticles on Nickel–Titanium Archwires in the Presence of Streptococcus mutans Bacteria. Coatings 2024, 14, 1503. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings14121503

AMA Style

Lozoya S, Rico RD, León EAC, López Meléndez C, Carreño-Gallardo C, Madrigal RMA, Monreal Romero HA. Evaluation of the Antimicrobial Effect of Ag Nanoparticles on Nickel–Titanium Archwires in the Presence of Streptococcus mutans Bacteria. Coatings. 2024; 14(12):1503. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings14121503

Chicago/Turabian Style

Lozoya, Sebastián, Raquel Duarte Rico, Eder Alejandro Carreón León, Claudia López Meléndez, Caleb Carreño-Gallardo, Rosa Margarita Aguilar Madrigal, and Humberto Alejandro Monreal Romero. 2024. "Evaluation of the Antimicrobial Effect of Ag Nanoparticles on Nickel–Titanium Archwires in the Presence of Streptococcus mutans Bacteria" Coatings 14, no. 12: 1503. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings14121503

APA Style

Lozoya, S., Rico, R. D., León, E. A. C., López Meléndez, C., Carreño-Gallardo, C., Madrigal, R. M. A., & Monreal Romero, H. A. (2024). Evaluation of the Antimicrobial Effect of Ag Nanoparticles on Nickel–Titanium Archwires in the Presence of Streptococcus mutans Bacteria. Coatings, 14(12), 1503. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings14121503

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop