Emerging Roles of Microrobots for Enhancing the Sensitivity of Biosensors
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Artificial Microrobots for Biosensing
Detection Principle | Type of Microrobots a | Target | Propulsion Type | Limit of Detection | Function | Refs |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Fluorescence | DNA-modified Au/Pt microrobots | HIV-1 RNA | Chemical | 1000 virus particles/mL | Expanding the range of target substances | [56] |
rGO/Pt microrobots | Ricin | Chemical | 0.1 ng/mL | Enhance sensitivity | [57] | |
rGO/Ni/PtNPs microrobots | Fumonizin B1 | Magnetic | 0.70 ng/mL | Reduce detection time | [58] | |
Ochratoxin A | 4 ng/mL | |||||
Graphdiyne tubular microrobots | Cholera toxin B | Chemical | 1.6 ng/mL | Reduce detection time | [41] | |
PEDOT/Pt microrobots | Hg2+ | Chemical | 3 mg/L | Reduce detection time | [59] | |
PEDOT/SiO2 microrobots | Poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) | Acoustic | - | Enhance sensitivity | [48] | |
SERS | Body of AgNW@SiO2 & tail of AgCl microrobots | Crystal violet & MCF-7 | Light | - | Enhance sensitivity | [42] |
Au/SiO/Fe microrobots | Rhodamine 6G | Magnetic | 0.5 nM | Enhance sensitivity | [60] | |
Locomotion | GO-wrapped/PtNPs Janus microrobots | Glutathione | Chemical | 0.89 µM | Expanding the range of target substances | [43] |
EC | Ag–AuNRs microrobots | SARS-CoV-2 virus | Magnetic | 1.11 PFU/mL | Enhance sensitivity | [45] |
Ag/Fe3O4 nanorobots | SARS-CoV-2 RNA | Magnetic | 6.1 ng/mL | Expanding the range of target substances | [44] | |
Mg-Au Janus microrobots | Diphenyl phthalate | Chemical | 0.039 mM | Expanding the range of target substances | [46] | |
EIS | MXene-derived γ-Fe2O3/Pt/TiO2 microrobots | Nanoplastics | Light | 106 nanoplastics/mL | Enhance sensitivity | [47] |
Mg/Fe3O4/P/anti-E microrobots | MCF-7, MCF-10A & GL261 cells | Chemical | - | Expanding the range of target substances | [61] |
3. Biosensors with Microrobots
3.1. Microrobots in Fluorescent Biosensing
3.2. Microrobots in Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering Biosensing
3.3. Microrobots in Locomotion-Based Biosensing
3.4. Microrobots in Electrochemical Current-Based Biosensing
3.5. Microrobots in Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy Biosensing
4. Conclusions and Perspective
- (i)
- Development of new synthesis strategy and surface modification to rise the loading capacity. Microrobots serving as active probes for biosensing tests are mostly fabricated with expensive materials and the surface modification is time consuming. Creating microrobots that use inorganic materials should be more efficient for mass production. Solvothermal/hydrothermal methods and template-assisted electrodeposition are adopted to synthesize microrobots just by one-step fabrication. Moreover, a large number of inorganic microrobots are featured with porous structures, which are better suited for rising the loading capacity. Based on the capability of mass production and enough space for surface modification, inorganic microrobots become excellent candidates to be applied in biosensor systems.
- (ii)
- Accurate swarm cooperation mechanism to overcome disturbance from harsh environments. Due to the high viscosity and large concentration of ions of tested specimens, microrobot individuals are difficult to effectively move because of the weak propulsion force. Based on swarm cooperation, one group of microrobots can aggregate together to output a large propulsion force together to overcome the disturbance. In general, the microrobot swarm powered by ultrasound maintains the highest locomotion speed and thus are primarily considered to be implemented for harsh environments in the biosensor platform. However, the method for accurately controlling the superfast movement of the ultrasonic microrobot swarm is lacking. With the development of metamaterials, unusual physical fields can be generated to modulate the spatial intensity and temporal variation, which can further improve the control accuracy of different microrobot swarms.
- (iii)
- Auxiliary instrument minimization for driving microrobots. It becomes easy for ordinary people to obtain commercialized biosensors, which are always designed to be portable or wearable for daily use. However, the operation of microrobots requires many auxiliary instruments closely related to the working principles. Most instruments for physically powered microrobots are bulky and expensive, and can only be implemented in the laboratory. With advanced electronic integrated circuit technology, it is possible to shrink these components to a minimized size, which can be well matched with the portable biosensing system. Regarding the costs for commercialization, detachable driving instruments are feasible if the microrobots can be effectively maneuvered to work inside biosensors.
- (iv)
- Reliable control algorithms to realize the self-adaptable microrobot locomotion. Currently, microrobots can be controlled to perform 2D in-plane movement, but long-distance locomotion along intricate routes is still not yet well demonstrated. For biological applications, multi-functional tests for different properties are sequentially accomplished on the same piece of biosensor with distributed testing regions. The fixed program setting is impossible to control microrobots to move effectively from one region to another in mazy microchannels. An artificial neural network control algorithm is a good option to be integrated with the manipulation system for dynamically optimizing the driving signals, enabling microrobots to be self-adaptable when performing multiple tasks in long-distance locomotion.
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Lu, X.; Bao, J.; Wei, Y.; Zhang, S.; Liu, W.; Wu, J. Emerging Roles of Microrobots for Enhancing the Sensitivity of Biosensors. Nanomaterials 2023, 13, 2902. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano13212902
Lu X, Bao J, Wei Y, Zhang S, Liu W, Wu J. Emerging Roles of Microrobots for Enhancing the Sensitivity of Biosensors. Nanomaterials. 2023; 13(21):2902. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano13212902
Chicago/Turabian StyleLu, Xiaolong, Jinhui Bao, Ying Wei, Shuting Zhang, Wenjuan Liu, and Jie Wu. 2023. "Emerging Roles of Microrobots for Enhancing the Sensitivity of Biosensors" Nanomaterials 13, no. 21: 2902. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano13212902