Word Pairs as Rhetorical Elements in the Qurʾān: In Memoriam Alexander Sima (1969–2004)

Abstract

Anyone who starts reading the Qurʾān out of linguistic and literary interest—whether in the original language or in a translation—very quickly becomes aware of the strong rhetorical effect of the text in its forcefulness and intensity. But by what means is this effect achieved? One means is duality, which, in Arabic, is already inherent in thought through the existence of the dual between singular and plural and is therefore of particular importance. The constantly repeated mention of God’s attributes in the Qurʾān—usually two terms of similar meaning, such as ġafūrun raḥīmun “All-forgiving, All-compassionate” (Arberry) or ʿalīmun ḥakīmun “All-knowing, All-wise” (Arberry)—determines the text as caesuras, and a second term is also often added to other terms in order to emphasise and intensify the statement, such as mā la-hū min waliyyin wa-lā naṣīrin “to have neither protector nor helper.” The phenomenon of merism—the totality ‘everything,’ ‘everywhere,’ and ‘always’ expressed by two opposing terms—is also used in the Qurʾān, for example, in ẓāhirun/bāṭinun “inward/outward,” meaning ‘all.’

1. Introduction

The following observations are a contribution to the study of the rhetorical language of the Qurʾān.1 The focus here lies on a particular linguistic phenomenon—that of word pairs. This term is also referred to as twin formulas, pair formulas, or binomials in other publications.2 In his book, published posthumously in 2024, Hans Sauer provides the following definition of the phenomenon (p. 7):

A common definition of binomials is that they are pairs of words which belong to the same word-class and are situated at the same syntactic level. They are connected by a coordinating conjunctions (mostly and, or or), and they have some semantic relation, most typically synonomy or antonomy or complementarity. A few examples are lord and master, men and women, heaven and earth, clean and pure, malicious and wicked, to have and to hold, to begin and commence, answered and said, up and down. Some binomials have become fixed and formulaic, but many were created on the spur of the moment.

In the preface to his 800-page book on word pairs in Hebrew, Ugaritic, Phoenician, Aramaic, and Akkadian literature, Yitzhak Avishur writes on p. V:

The study of word-pairs is an important field in itself; as word-pairs are one of the more important building stones in the construction of the poetic parallelism so characteristic of ancient Semitic literature, any study of that literature has to deal with them.

It can be safely assumed that what Avishur said also applies to Arabic literature, and once attention has been drawn to the phenomenon of word pairs, they indeed appear in great abundance in the texts.

Arabic philologists of earlier centuries were also interested in word pairs, such as those with alliteration. Often, the second of the two elements has no meaning of its own or a very similar one;3 both terms are joined together as nouns or verbs with the conjunction wa- “and,” or as adjectives without the conjunction “and.”4 Material on this phenomenon has been compiled in treatises on itbāʿ, such as Kitāb al-itbāʿ by Abū ṭ-Ṭayyib al-Luġawī (d. 351/962) or the book of the same title by Ibn Fāris (d. 395/1005). Other authors have included chapters on itbāʿ in their more extensive works, such as Ibn Durayd (d. 321/933) in his lexicon Ǧamhara III 1253 a, Abū ʿAlī al-Qāli (d. 356/967) in his Amālī II 208, and as-Suyūṭī (d. 911/1505) in Muzhir I 414. These authors quote earlier works, some of which have not been preserved.

The itbāʿ collections now contain phrases such as ḍaʾīlun baʾīlun “particularly weak,”5 ʿawizun lawizun “destitute,”6 sibaḥlun ribaḥlun “well-built,”7 and ṭabbun labbun “[a man] of sense, of sound judgment, of discernment”8—to name a few examples. The Qurʾān also contains phrases referred to as itbāʿ, such as humazatun lumazatun “backbiter, slanderer”9 and the phrase hanīʾan marīʾan “with wholesome appetite,”10 which is still commonly used today.

Another type of word pair was collected by aṯ-Ṯaʿālibī (d. 429/1038) and presented in his Ṯimār al-qulūb—genitive phrases such as barqu ḫullabin (no. 1107) meaning the lightning that promises rain but whose clouds in the end remain without rain, thus standing for an empty promise, or numerous word combinations that form the proverbial nucleus of a traditional narrative, as in no. 467 ḥumqu Duġata “the stupidity of Duġa”11 or in no. 120 ǧawfu ḥimārin/Ḥimārin, which has undergone various interpretations, such as “the belly of the donkey” or “the valley of Ḥimār.” (See Heinrichs 1998, p. 289.)

The Qurʾān also contains word pairs of a different nature. This article focuses on these pairs. In addition to the names of God (Section 2) that have already been examined several times, the pairs of words to be presented below appear in the Qurʾān as synonymous or antonymous pairs. This means that both elements of the pair belong to the same semantic field or originate from two contrasting areas (Section 3).

Duality is an essential feature of Arabic thinking. The dual form, which exists alongside the singular and plural—and is also attested to several times in the Qurʾān—gives clear linguistic expression to this fact (see Spitaler 1989, p. 5). A conceptual connection can certainly be established with the terms that are linked in pairs in the Qurʾān and form an integral part of Qurʾānic rhetoric.

The fact that the word pairs from the same semantic field are mostly rhetorical phrases can be seen from the observation that sometimes only one of the two elements appears in a similar context in another sura, so that it seems to be sufficient to use only one term to convey the content. By using two elements, however, the pace of the narrative is slowed down, attention is focused on the quasi-double content, and the fact is given more emphasis.12

Other conditions apply to pairs consisting of two words with an opposite meaning. Most of the word pairs are merisms, i.e., they express an all-encompassing meaning and, depending on the context, stand for ‘all, everything, everywhere, always’ by naming two opposite poles.13 If we talk about ‘all people,’ for example, we can pick out different characteristics and talk about ‘small and tall’ or ‘old and young’ or ‘thick and thin,’ among others. The characteristics that are addressed play a significant role here. For the interpretation as a merism, with the subsequent rendering of a term such as ‘all,’ here would deny the text its deliberately chosen imagery or colourfulness.

However, there are cases in which there is no connection between the semantic field of the word pair and the semantic field of what is meant. The meaning is therefore unclear at first glance. The example cited by Spitaler from al-Ḥarīrī’s Maqāmāt shows this clearly—fa-ġāra fī ḍ-ḍiḥki wa-anǧad. The literal translation “he went into the lowlands and highlands in laughter” makes no sense, since the combination of lowlands and highlands is a meristic phrase and means that someone bursts into the most violent laughter that takes up the whole person (see Spitaler 1998, p. 432). Meristic phrases are therefore an essential topic of phraseology.14

Some word pairs appear in different contexts. Whether this is a more or less fixed expression would first have to be confirmed by evidence in other texts. The attributes of God, which are specific to the Qurʾān, can be described as formulae, since they are repeated several times in different contexts and can be referred to God each time, even if he is not mentioned by another unambiguous name.

Since regulations and rules, admonitions and warnings, interspersed with stories from past times, are contained in the Qurʾān several times in different suras, we also find the rhetorical formulations contained therein several times in the same context.15 It can often be observed that two, three, or more word pairs are arranged in a row.16

From the numerous word pairs that can be found in the Qurʾān, only a few examples could be selected here for Section 2 and Section 3, primarily those word pairs that occur more than once in the Qurʾān. The quotations from the Qurʾān are reproduced as briefly as possible below, and the English translation is that of Arberry (1955); see the references. The orthography of the Qurʾānic texts in Arabic script is adapted to modern spelling as much as possible.

Finally, this article summarises the linguistic embellishment (Section 4) and amplification of the word pairs (Section 5 and Section 6). There is an expectation that further phenomena will be found in other word pairs that could not be considered in this paper.

The language of the Qurʾān is unique and can only be compared to a limited extent with other contemporary texts, such as pre-Islamic and early Islamic poetry, which also has a very specific style. Due to the themes, similarities can only rarely be expected. However, as might be expected, these can be found in another religious text, the Bible, which has already been examined in detail for word pairs and from which quotations will be taken here where possible.

It should also be borne in mind that longer linguistic structures, such as word pairs, can only rarely be placed in poetic verse, which is regulated by strict verse metres. Word pairs that refer to each other but are separated from each other and associated with further content, well known as parallelismus membrorum,17 are also a stylistic device in Arabic poetry, but are not the subject of this treatise.

2. The Attributes of God

The attributes of God mentioned in the Qurʾān—al-asmāʾ al-ḥusnā “the very beautiful names”—usually appear in pairs.18 They are used at the beginning of a sura or verse, at the end, or to structure a verse.19 It is characteristic that both terms follow each other without a conjunction, such as ar-raḥmānu r-raḥīmu “the Merciful, the Compassionate,” one of the most frequently occurring word pairs in the Qurʾān.20 This word pair, which has become a formula due to its frequent occurrence, is found at the beginning of every sura; both elements are formed from the same word root rḥm.21

Two examples, which usually appear at the end of verses, are presented here in detail, ġafūrun raḥīmun in Section 2.1 and ʿalīmun ḥakīmun in Section 2.2.

2.1. Ġafūrun/Raḥīmun "All-Forgiving/All-Compassionate"

The word pair is one of the most frequently cited attributes of God in the Qurʾān—expressed several times as wa-llāhu ġafūrun raḥīmun “God is All-forgiving, All-compassionate.”22 The term ġafūrun usually comes first, followed by raḥīmun; only in one verse (Q.34:2) is it reversed. The formula can be found 71 times in the Qurʾān, in some suras several times, especially in suras 2 to 10, but in other suras it does not occur.

Q. 2:173, 182, 192, 199, 218, 226/3:31, 89, 129/4:23, 25, 96, 100, 106, 110, 129, 152/5:3, 34, 39, 74, 98/6:54, 145, 165/7:153, 167/8:69, 70/9:5, 27, 91, 99, 102/10:107/11:41/12:53, 98/14:36/15:49/16:18, 110, 115, 119/24:5, 22, 33, 62/25:6, 70/27:11/28:16/33:5, 24, 50, 59, 73/39:53/41:32/42:5/46:8/48:14/49:5, 14/57:28/58:12/60:7, 12/64:14/66:1/73:20

The examples show the variety of formulations, such as the indefinite formula or the words with the article al-, connected to the preceding text with the conjunctions fa- or wa- “and” or without a conjunction, with the introductory particles inna, anna, with the subject allāhu “God,” huwa “he,” rabb-ī “my lord” or rabbu-ka “your lord,” rarely with the insertion of a piece of text between subject and formula, and others.

wa-llāhu ġafūrun raḥīmun Q. 2:218/3:31, 129/4:25/5:74/8:70/9:27, 91/24:22/49:5/57:28/60:7/66:1

wa-kāna llāhu ġafūran raḥīman Q. 4:96, 100, 152/25:70/33:5, 50, 59, 73/48:14

inna llāha ġafūrun raḥīmun Q. 2:173, 182, 199/5:39/8:69/9:5, 99, 102/24:62/49:14/60:12/73:20

fa-inna llāha ġafūrun raḥīmun Q. 2:192, 226/3:89/5:3/16:115/24:5/58:12/64:14

fa-inna llāha min baʿdi ʾikrāhi-hinna ġafūrun raḥīmun Q. 24:33

inna llāha la-ġafūrun raḥīmun Q. 16:18

a-lā inna llāha huwa l-ġafūru r-raḥīmu Q. 42:5

inna llāha kāna ġafūran raḥīman Q. 4:23, 106/33:24

fa-inna llāha kāna ġafūran raḥīman Q. 4:129

inna rabb-ī ġafūrun raḥīmun Q. 12:53

inna rabb-ī la-ġafūrun raḥīmun Q. 11:41

inna rabba-ka min baʿdi-hā la-ġafūrun raḥīmun Q. 7:153/16:110, 119

fa-inna rabba-ka ġafūrun raḥīmun Q. 6:145

rabbu-kum … fa-inna-hū ġafūrun raḥīmun Q. 6:54

inna-hū huwa l-ġafūru r-raḥīmu Q. 12:98/28:16/39:53

wa-huwa l-ġafūru r-raḥīmu Q. 10:107/46:8

wa-inna-hū la-ġafūrun raḥīmun Q. 6:165/7:167

inna-hū kāna ġafūran raḥīman Q. 25:6

fa-inna-ka ġafūrun raḥīmun Q. 14:36

fa-inn-ī ġafūrun raḥīmun Q. 27:11

nabbiʾ ʿibād-ī ann-ī anā l-ġafūru r-raḥīmu Q. 15:49

iʿlamū … wa-anna llāha ġafūrun raḥīmun Q. 5:98

fa-ʿlamū anna llāha ġafūrun raḥīmun Q. 5:34

wa-la-kum fī-hā mā taddaʿūna nuzulān min ġafūrin raḥīmin Q. 41:32

wa-man … yaǧidi llāha ġafūran raḥīman Q. 4:110

As mentioned at the beginning, the two terms appear interchanged in their position in a single passage; see wa-huwa r-raḥīmu l-ġafūru in Q. 34:2.

In another verse, the formula appears modified by replacing the term ar-raḥīmu with the compound ḏū r-raḥmati;23 see wa-rabbu-ka l-ġafūru ḏū r-raḥmati “But thy Lord is the All-forgiving, full of mercy” in Q.18:58.

It should be mentioned that both terms—ġafūrun and raḥīmun—appear in a few verses as single terms, ġafūrun in Q. 17:25 (fa-inna-hū kāna li-l-awwābīna ġafūran) and 34:15 (baldatun ṭayyibatun wa-rabbun ġafūrun) and raḥīmun in Q. 4:29 (inna llāha kāna bi-kum raḥīman), 17:66 (inna-hū kāna bi-kum raḥīman), 33:43 (wa-kāna bi-l-muʾminīna raḥīman), and 36:58 (salāmun qawlan min rabbin raḥīmin).

The two terms ġafūrun and raḥīmun are also combined with another term to form a word pair, in each case at the end of the verse. With ġafūrun:

ġafūrun ḥalīmun “All-forgiving, All-clement” Q. 2:225, 235/3:155/5:101

ḥalīmun ġafūrun “All-clement, All-forgiving” Q. 17:44/35:41

ġafūrun šakūrun “All-forgiving, All-thankful” Q. 35:30, 34/42:23

ʿazīzun ġafūrun “All-mighty, All-forgiving” Q. 35:28/67:2

ʿafuwwun ġafūrun “All-pardoning, All-forgiving” Q. 4:43, 99/22:60/58:2

ġafūrun wadūdun “All-forgiving, All-loving” Q. 85:14

With raḥīmun:

barrun raḥīmun “All-benign, All-compassionate” Q. 52:28

tawwābun raḥīmun “truly He turns, is All-compassionate” Q. 2:37, 54, 128, 160/4:16, 64/9:104, 118/49:12

raʾūfun raḥīmun “All-gentle, All-compassionate” Q. 2:143/9:117, 128/16:7, 47/22:65/24:20/57:9/59:10

raḥmānun raḥīmun “All-merciful, All-compassionate” Q. 2:163/27:30/41:2/59:2224

ʿazīzun raḥīmun “All-mighty, All-compassionate” Q. 26:9, 68, 104, 122, 140, 159, 175, 191, 217/30:5/32:6/36:5/44:42

raḥīmun wadūdun “All-compassionate, All-loving” Q. 11:90

2.2. ʿAlīmun/Ḥakīmun "All-Knowing/All-Wise"

The word pair ʿalīmun ḥakīmun “All-knowing, All-wise” is another example of the description of God.25 Both terms belong to the same semantic area. In most cases, the term ʿalīmun comes first and ḥakīmun second (29 examples); in some verses, it is the other way around (7 examples). In all cases, the phrase comes at the end of the verse in question.

ʿalīmun ḥakīmun Q. 2:32/4:11, 17, 24, 26, 92, 104, 111, 170/8:71/9:15, 28, 60, 97, 106, 110/12:6, 83, 100/22:52/24:18, 58, 59/33:1/48:4/49:8/60:10/66:2/76:30

ḥakīmun ʿalīmun Q. 6:83, 128, 139/15:25/27:6/43:84/51:30

The phrase appears eight times in sura 4 with 176 verses and six times in sura 9 with 129 verses. As the following examples show, an identical formulation of the phrase is used in both suras; only in 4:26 does the wording differ from the other seven in the sura.

wa-llāhu ʿalīmun ḥakīmun Q. 4:26/8:71/9:15, 60, 97, 106, 110/22:52/24:18, 58, 59/49:8/60:10

inna llāha ʿalīmun ḥakīmun Q. 9:28

inna rabba-ka ʿalīmun ḥakīmun Q. 12:6

inna-hū huwa ʿalīmun ḥakīmun Q. 12:83, 100

wa-huwa ʿalīmun ḥakīmun Q. 66:2

inna-ka anta l-ʿalīmu l-ḥakīmu Q. 2:32

wa-kāna llāhu ʿalīman ḥakīman26 Q. 4:17, 92, 104, 111, 170/48:4

inna llāha kāna ʿalīman ḥakīman Q. 4:11, 24/33:1/76:30

With reversed position of both terms:

inna rabba-ka ḥakīmun ʿalīmun Q. 6:83, 128

inna-hū ḥakīmun ʿalīmun Q. 6:139/15:25

wa-huwa l-ḥakīmu l-ʿalīmu Q. 43:84

inna-hū huwa l-ḥakīmu l-ʿalīmu Q. 51:30

wa-inna-ka la-tulaqqā l-qurʾāna min ladun ḥakīmin ʿalīmin Q. 27:6

While ḥakīmun “All-wise” does not occur alone,27 but is always combined with a second term, ʿalīmun “All-knowing” is often used as a single description of God, usually with an object. The phrase always occurs at the end of a verse. Here are a few from the numerous examples:

wa-llāhu bi-kulli šayʾin ʿalīmun “and God has knowledge of everything” Q. 2:282/4:176/24:35, 64/49:16/64:11; similar 2:29, 231/4:32/5:97/6:101/8:75/9:115/29:62/33:40, 54/42:12/48:26/57:3/58:7

wa-llāhu ʿalīmun bi-ḏāti ṣ-ṣudūri “and God knows the thoughts in the breasts” Q. 3:154/64:4; similar 3:119/5:7/11:5/31:23/35:38/39:7/42:24/57:6/67:13

wa-llāhu ʿalīmun bi-mā yaʿmalūna “but God knews what they were doing” Q. 12:19; similar 2:283/16:28/23:51/24:28

The nouns ʿalīmun and ḥakīmun are also combined with another noun to form a word pair, each at the end of the verse. With ʿalīmun:

ʿalīmun ḥalīmun “All-knowing, All-clement” Q. 4:12/22:59/33:51

ʿalīmun ḫabīrun “All-knowing, All-aware” Q. 4:35/31:34/49:13/66,3

ḫallāqun ʿalīmun “All-creator, All-knowing” Q. 15:86/36:81

samīʿun ʿalīmun “All-hearing, All-knowing” Q. 2:127, 137, 181, 224, 227, 244, 256/3:34, 35, 121/4:148/5:76/6:13, 115/7:200/8:17, 42, 53, 61/9:98, 103/10:65/12:34/21:4/24:21, 60/26:220/29:5, 60/41:36/44:6/49:1

šākirun ʿalīmun “All-grateful, All-knowing” Q. 2:158/4:147

ʿazīzun ʿalīmun “All-mighty, All-knowing” Q. 6:96/27:78/36:38/40:2/41:12/43:9

fattāḥun ʿalīmun “deliverer, All-knowing” Q. 34:26

ʿalīmun qadīrun “All-knowing, All-powerful” Q. 16:70/30:54/35:44/42:50

wāsiʿun ʿalīmun “All-embracing, All-knowing” Q. 2:115, 247, 261, 268/3:73/5:54/24:32

With ḥakīmun:

tawwābun ḥakīmun “He turns, All-wise” Q. 24:10

ʿazīzun ḥakīmun “All-mighty, All-wise” Q. 2:129, 209, 220, 228, 240, 260/3:6, 18, 62, 126/4:56, 158, 165/5:38, 118/8:10, 49, 63, 67/9:40, 71/14:4/16:60/27:9/29:26, 42/30:27/31:9, 27/34:27/35:2/39:1/40:8/42:3/45:2, 37/46:2/48:7, 19/57:1/59:1, 24/60:5/61:1/62:1, 3/64:18

ḥakīmun ḫabīrun “All-wise, All-aware” Q. 6:18, 73/11:1/34:1

ʿaliyyun ḥakīmun “All-high, All-wise” Q. 42:51/43:4

wāsiʿun ḥakīmun “All-embracing, All-wise” Q. 4:130

3. Pairs of Words with Similar or Opposite Meanings

The word pairs presented in this chapter belong to two different groups. Either both elements of the pair originate from the same semantic field having more or less a similar meaning (Section 3.1), or both elements have an opposite meaning or quality (Section 3.2) (Müller (1993) p. 114).

The nominal or verbal word pairs are usually connected with the conjunction wa-, i.e., X wa-Y “X and Y” (Cf. Avishur (1984) p. 91; Sauer (2024) p. 16, chap. 8.3). We rarely encounter the particle aw “or,” for example, in the pair bdw/ḫfy (Section “Unseen/Visible,” “Inward/Outward,” “Concealing/Revealing” “concealing/revealing” no. 11–15).

In the following discussion, based on the available textual evidence, i.e., a relatively small body of material, a distinction is made between two categories. Avishur (1984), on the other hand, divides his textual material from Hebrew, Ugaritic, Phoenician, Aramaic, and Akkadian literatures into three categories28 (p. 91):

According to their content, pair components bound by waw copulative can be devided into three categories: synonyms (which are in the majority), antonyms and heteronyms.

3.1. Pairs of Words with Similar Meaning

3.1.1. Laʿibun/Lahwun "Sport/Diversion" (No. 1–6)

huzuwun/laʿibun “mockery/sport” (no. 7–8)

The position of the two alliterative terms laʿibun and lahwun is different in the five Qurʾānic verses; laʿibun is mentioned first three times, lahwun twice. The context is irrelevant. Instead of lahwun, the term huzuwun “mockery” appears in the first position in two verses (no. 7, 8).

The word pair laʿibun and lahwun can be documented frequently in later literature; see Müller 1993 118, Ullmann (1970–2009) II 801 a 22, 802 a 35 (lʿb) and 1581 b 30 (lhw).

Amplification: In Q. 57:20, the word pair is extended with zīnatun “adornment” to a triple formula; see Section 5.1 below.

Contexts: (1) the life of this world (no. 1, 4–6), (2) the prayer or religion (no. 2, 3, 7, 8)

Examples:

1 وَمَا الْحَيَوةُ الدُّنْيَا إِلَّا لَعِبٌ وَلَهْوٌ (1)

Q. 6:32 “The present life is naught but a sport and a diversion;” Ullmann (1970–2009) II 801 a 22 (lʿb)

2 وَذَرِ الَّذِينَ اتَّخَذُوا دِينَهُمْ لَعِبًا وَلَهْوًا وَغَرَّتْهُمُ الْحَيَوةُ الدُّنْيَا (2)

Q. 6:70 “Leave alone those who take their religion for a sport and a diversion, and whom the present life has deluded;” Ullmann (1970–2009) II 801 a 27 (lʿb) and 1581 b 34 (lhw)

3 الَّذِينَ اتَّخَذُوا دِينَهُمْ لَهْوًا وَلَعِبًا وَغَرَّتْهُمُ الْحَيَوةُ الدُّنْيَا (2)

Q. 7:51 “God has forbidden them to the unbelievers who have taken their religion as a diversion and a sport, and whom the present life has deluded”

4 وَمَا هذِهِ الْحَيَوةُ الدُّنْيَا إِلَّا لَهْوٌ وَلَعِبٌ (1)

Q. 29:64 “This present life is naught but a diversion and a sport”

5 إِنَّمَا الْحَيَوةُ الدُّنْيَا لَعِبٌ وَلَهْوٌ (1)

Q. 47:36 “The present life is naught but a sport and a diversion”

6 اِعْلَمُوا أَنَّمَا الْحَيَوةُ الدُّنْيَا لَعِبٌ وَلَهْوٌ وزِينَةٌ (1)

Q. 57:20 “Know that the present life is but a sport and a diversion, an adornment and a cause of boasting among you, and a rivalry in wealth and children;” Ullmann (1970–2009) II 1581 b 32 (lhw)

7 يَأَيُّهَا الَّذِينَ آمَنُوا لَا تَتَّخِذُوا الَّذِينَ اتَّخَذُوا دِينَكُمْ هُزُوًا وَلَعِبُا (2)

Q. 5:57 “O believers, take not as your friends those of them, […] who take your religion as mockery and as a sport;” Ullmann (1970–2009) II 802 a 35 (lʿb)

8 وَإِذَا نَادَيْتُمْ إِلَى الصَّلَوةِ اتَّخَذُوهَا هُزُوًا وَلَعِبًا (2)

Q. 5:58 “and when you call to prayer, [the unbelievers] take it in mockery and as a sport;” Ullmann (1970–2009) II 802 a 37 (lʿb)

3.1.2. Faḥšāʾu/Munkarun "Indecency/Dishonour" (No. 1–3)

The examples of the word pair are used in different contexts.

Amplification: In Q. 16:90, the word pair is supplemented with another term—baġyun “injustice”—to form a triple phrase; see below in Section 5.1.

Contexts: (1) God forbids disgraceful deeds (no. 1), (2) Satan orders outrages (no. 2), (3) prayer keeps people from doing wrong (no. 3).

Examples:

1 إِنَّ اللَّهَ … وَيَنْهَى عَنِ الْفَحْشَاءِ وَالْمُنْكَرِ وَالْبَغْيِ (1)

Q. 16:90 “[God …] And he forbids indecency, dishonour, and insolence”

2 وَمَنْ يَتَّبِعْ خُطُوَاتِ الشَّيْطَانِ فَإِنَّهُ يَأْمُرُ بِالْفَحْشَاءِ وَالْمُنْكَرِ (2)

Q. 24:21 “for whosoever follows the steps of Satan, assuredly he bids to indecency and dishonour”

3 إِنَّ الصَّلَوةَ تَنْهَى عَنِ الْفَحْشَاءِ وَالْمُنْكَرِ (3)

Q. 29:45 “prayer forbids indecency and dishonour”

3.1.3. "Guidance/Mercy"

In Q. 2:185 it is said that “the Qurʾān was sent down to be a guidance to the people,” in Q. 17:2 “And We gave Moses the Book, and made it a guidance to the Children of Israel,” and in Q. 32:23 “Indeed, We gave Moses the Book … and We appointed it for a guidance to the children of Israel.” In all verses, “guidance” is the translation for hudan.

In numerous other cases, however, where a book that has been sent down is mentioned—be it the tablets of Moses, the Torah, the Gospel, or the Qurʾān—we find hudan supplemented with a second term from the same semantic area. The word pair reinforces and complements the statement, as the following 21 examples will show:

hudan/raḥmatun “guidance/mercy” (no. 1–13)

hudan/bušran “guidance/good tidings” (no. 14–16)

hudan/nūrun “guidance/light” (no. 17–19)

hudan/ḏikran “guidance/reminder” (no. 20)

hudan/mawʿiẓun “guidance/admonition” (no. 21)

The word pairs containing hudan can certainly be counted among the specifically Qurʾānic word pairs.

Amplification: In example no. 9, the word pair hudan wa-raḥmatun is expanded with bušran to form a triple formula; see below in Section 5.1.

Contexts: (1) the Scripture for Moses (no. 1, 4, 11, 19, 20), (2) the Torah (no. 17), (3) the Gospel for Jesus (no. 18, 21), (4) the divine revelation for the believers (no. 2, 3, 5–10, 12–16, 21). The different word pairs are not linked to the different contexts.

Examples:

1 ثُمَّ آتَيْنَا مُوسَى الْكِتَابَ تَمَامًا عَلَى الَّذِي أَحْسَنَ وَتَفْضِيلًا لِكُلِّ شَيْءٍ وَهُدًى وَرَحْمَةً (1)

Q. 6:154 “Then We gave Moses the Book, complete for him who does good, and distinguishing every thing, and as a guidance and mercy”

2 أَوْ تَقُولُوا لَوْ أَنَّا أُنْزِلَ عَلَيْنَا الْكِتَابُ لَكُنَّا أَهْدَى مِنْهُمْ فَقَدْ جَاءَكُمْ بَيِّنَةٌ مِنْ رَبِّكُمْ وَهُدًى وَرَحْمَةٌ (4)

Q. 6:157 “or lest you say, ‘If the Book had been sent down upon us, we had surely been more rightly guided than they.’ Yet indeed a clear sign has come to you from your Lord, and a guidance and a mercy”

3 وَلَقَدْ جِئْنَاهُمْ بِكِتَابٍ فَصَّلْنَاهُ عَلَى عِلْمٍ هُدًى وَرَحْمَةً لِقَوْمٍ يُؤْمِنُونَ (4)

Q. 7:52 “And We have brought to them a Book that We have well distinguished, resting on knowledge, a guidance and a mercy unto people that believe”

4 وَلَمَّا سَكَتَ عَنْ مُوسَى الْغَضَبُ أَخَذَ الْأَلْوَاحَ وَفِي نُسْخَتِهَا هُدًى ورَحْمَةٌ لِلَّذِينَ هُمْ لِرَبِّهِمْ يَرْهَبُونَ (1)

Q. 7:154 “And when Moses‘ anger abated in him, he took the Tablets and in the inscription of them was guidance and mercy unto all those who hold their Lord in awe”

5 قُلْ إِنَّمَا أَتَّبِعُ مَا يُوحَى إِلَيَّ مِنْ رَبِّي هَذَا بَصَائِرُ مِنْ رِبِّكُمْ وَهُدًى وَرَحْمَةٌ لِقَوْمٍ يُؤْمِنُونَ (4)

Q. 7:203 “Say: ‚I follow only what is revealed to me from my Lord; this is clear testimony from your Lord, guidance, and mercy for a people of believers’”

6 يَأَيُّهَا النَّاسُ قَدْ جَاءَتْكُمْ مَوْعِظَةٌ مِنْ رَبِّكُمْ وَشِفَاءٌ لِمَا فِي الصُّدُورِ وَهُدًى وَرَحْمَةٌ لِلْمُؤْمِنِينَ (4)

Q. 10:57 “O men, now there has come to you an admonition from your Lord, and a healing for what is in the breasts, and a guidance, and a mercy to the believers”

7 مَا كَانَ حَدِيثًا يُفْتَرَى وَلَكِنْ تَصْدِيقَ الَّذِي بَيْنَ يَدَيْهِ وَتَفْصِيلَ كُلِّ شَيْءٍ وَهُدًى وَرَحْمَةً لِقَوْمٍ يُؤْمِنُونَ (4)

Q. 12:111 “it is not a tale forged, but a confirmation of what is before it, and a distinguishing of every thing, and a guidance, and a mercy to a people who believe”

8 وَمَا أَنْزَلْنَا عَلَيْكَ الْكِتَابَ إِلَّا لِتُبَيِّنَ لَهُمُ الَّذِي اخْتَلَفُوا فِيهِ وَهُدًى وَرَحْمَةً لِقَوْمٍ يُؤْمِنُونَ (4)

Q. 16:64 “And We have not sent down upon thee the Book except that thou mayest make clear to them that whereon they were at variance, and as a guidance and as a mercy to a people who believe”

9 وَنَزَّلْنَا عَلَيْكَ الْكِتَابَ تِبْيَانًا لِكُلِّ شَيْءٍ وَهُدًى وَرَحْمَةً وَبُشْرَى لِلْمُسْلِمِينَ (4)

Q. 16:89 “And we have sent down on thee the Book making clear everything, and as a guidance and a mercy, and as good tidings to those who surrender”

10 إِنَّ هَذَا الْقُرْآنَ يَقُصُّ عَلَى بَنِي إِسْرَاءِيلَ أَكْثَرَ الَّذِي هُمْ فِيهِ يَخْتَلِفُونَ وَإِنَّهُ لَهُدًى وَرَحْمَةٌ لِلْمُؤْمِنِينَ (4)

Q. 27:77 “Surely this Qurʾān relates to the Children of Israel most of that concerning which they are at variance; it is a guidance, and a mercy unto the believers”

11 وَلَقَدْ آتَيْنَا مُوسَى الْكِتَابَ مِنْ بَعْدِ مَا أَهْلَكْنَا الْقُرُونَ الْأُولَى بَصَائِرَ لِلنَّاسِ وَهُدًى وَرَحْمَةً لَعَلَّهُمْ يَتَذَكَّرُونَ (1)

Q. 28:43 “And We gave Moses the Book, after that We had destroyed the former generations, to be examples and a guidance and a mercy, that haply so they might remember”

12 تِلْكَ آيَاتُ الْكِتَابِ الْحَكِيمِ هُدًى وَرَحْمَةً لِلْمُحْسِنِينَ (4)

Q. 31:3 “Those are the signs of the Wise Book for a guidance and a mercy to the good-doers”

13 هَذَا بَصَائِرُ لِلنَّاسِ وَهُدًى وَرَحْمَةً لِقَوْمٍ يُوقِنُونَ (4)

Q. 45:20 “This is clear proofs for men, and a guidance, and a mercy to a people having sure faith”

hudan/bušran “guidance/good tidings”

With regard to the sending down of the Qurʾān to the believers, another word pair appears in three verses, hudan “guidance” and bušran “good tidings;” cf. bušran in a triple formula (no. 9) below in Section 5.1.

14 قُلْ مَنْ كَانَ عَدُوًّا لِجِبْرِيلَ فَإِنَّهُ نَزَّلَهُ عَلَى قَلْبِكَ بِإِذْنِ اللَّهِ مُصَدِّقًا لِمَا بَيْنَ يَدَيْهِ وَهُدًى وَبُشْرًى لِلْمُؤْمِنِينَ (4)

Q. 2:97 “Say: ‚Whosoever is an enemy to Gabriel—he it was that brought it down upon thy heart by the leave of God, confirming what was before it, and for a guidance and good tidings to the believers”

15 قُلْ نَزَّلَهُ رُوحُ الْقُدُسِ مِنْ رَبِّكَ بِالْحَقِّ لِيُثَبِّتَ الَّذِينَ آمَنُوا وَهُدًى وَبُشْرًى لِلْمُسْلِمِينَ (4)

Q. 16:102 “Say: ‚The Holy Spirit sent it down from thy Lord in truth, and to confirm those who believe, and to be a guidance and good tidings to those who surrender’”

16 تِلْكَ آيَاتُ الْقُرْآنِ وَكِتَابٍ مُبِينٍ هُدًى وَبُشْرًى لِلْمُسْلِمِينَ (4)

Q. 27:2 “Those are the signs of the Qurʾān and a Manifest Book, a guidance, and good tidings unto the believers”

hudan/nūrun “guidance/light”

Another word pair is the combination of hudan and nūrun “light,” which is also associated with the sending down of a scripture for the believers. Sura 5 speaks of the Torah (no. 16) and the Gospel (no. 7), while sura 6 speaks of Moses, who brought the Scriptures to the people (no. 18).

17 إِنَّا أَنْزَلْنَا التَّوْرَاةَ فِيهَا هُدًى وَنُورٌ (2)

Q. 5:44 “Surely We sent down the Torah, wherein is guidance and light”

18 وَآتَيْنَاهُ الْإِنْجِيلَ فِيهِ هُدًى وَنُورٌ (3)

Q. 5:46 “and We gave to him [Jesus] the Gospel, wherein is guidance and light”29

19 قُلْ مَنْ أَنْزَلَ الْكِتَابَ الَّذِي جَاءَ بِهِ مُوسَى نُورًا وهُدًى لِلنَّاسِ (1)

Q. 6:91 “Say: ‚Who sent down the Book that Moses brought as a light and a guidance to men?”

hudan/ḏikran “guidance/reminder”

20 وَلَقَدْ آتَيْنَا مُوسَى الْهُدَى وَأَوْرَثْنَا بَنِي إِسْرَاءِيلَ الْكِتَابَ هُدًى وَذِكْرَى لِأُوْلِى الْأَلْبَابِ (1)

Q. 40:54 “We also gave Moses the guidance, and We bequeathed upon the Children of Israel the Book for a guidance and for a reminder to men possessed of minds”

The term ḏikran “reminder” is used in other suras as a single term, for example:

إِنَّ فِي ذَلِكَ لَذِكْرَى لِأُولِي الْأَلْبَابِ

Q. 39:21 “Surely in that [God makes the seed grow] is a reminder for men possessed of minds”

hudan/mawʿiẓan “guidance/admonition”

21 وَمُصَدِّقًا لِمَا بَيْنَ يَدَيْهِ مِنَ التَّوْرَاةِ وَهُدًى وَمَوْعِظَةً لِلْمُتَّقِينَ (4)

Q. 5:46 “and confirming the Torah before it, as a guidance and an admonition unto the godfearing”

3.1.4. "No Protector/No Helper"

In some suras it is said that unbelievers are severely punished by God and have no helpers (nāṣirūna or anṣārun) against this; for example:

فَأَمَّا الَّذِينَ كَفَرُوا فَأُعَذِّبُهُمْ عَذَابًا شَدِيدًا فِي الدُّنْيَا وَالآخِرَةِ وَمَا لَهُمْ مِنْ نَاصِرِينَ

Q. 3:56 “I will chastise them with a terrible chastisement in this world and the next; they shall have no helpers;” cf. further texts such as Q. 5:72, 16:3730

In other suras, the word pair ‘w1 and w2,’ instead of one single term w1 or w2, is found in the same context. The pattern of the phrase is mā la-hū min w1 wa-lā w2 “to have no w1 and no w2” or “to have neither w1 nor w2.” Terms from six different word roots can be found.

waliyyun/naṣīrun “protector/helper” (no. 1–8)

waliyyun/šafīʿun “protector/intercessor” (no. 9–11)

waliyyun/wāqin “protector/defender” (no. 12)

šāfiʿun/ṣadīqun “intercessor/friend” (no. 13)

ḥamīmun/šafīʿun “friend/intercessor” (no. 14)

Contexts: (1) to have no protector against the punishing God (no. 1–6, 9–14), (2) to find no protector in hellfire (no. 7), (3) to find no protector on Judgement Day (no. 8).

Examples:

1 وَمَا لَكُمْ مِنْ دُونِ اللَّهِ مِنْ وَلِيٍّ وَلَا نَصِيرٍ (1)

Q. 2:107 “you have none, apart from God, neither protector nor helper”

Q. 9:116 “and you have not, apart from God, either protector or helper”

Q. 29:22 “and you have not, apart from God, either protector or helper”

Q. 42:31 “and apart from God, you have neither protector nor helper”

2 مَا لَكَ مِنَ اللَّهِ مِنْ وَلِيٍّ وَلَا نَصِيرٍ (1)

Q. 2:120 “thou shalt have against God neither protector nor helper”

3 مَا لَهُمْ فِي الْأَرْضِ مِنْ وَلِيٍّ وَلَا نَصِيرٍ (1)

Q. 9:74 “on the earth they have no protector or helper”

4 وَالظَّالِمُونَ مَا لَهُمْ مِنْ وَلِيًّ وَلَا نَصِيرٍ (1)

Q. 42:8 “and the evildoers shall have neither protector nor helper”

5 وَلَا يَجِدْ لَهُ مِنْ دُونِ اللَّهِ وَلِيًّا وَلَا نَصِيرًا (1)

Q. 4:123 “Whosoever … will not find for him, apart from God, a friend or helper”

6 وَلَا يَجِدُونَ لَهُمْ مِنْ دُونِ اللَّهِ وَلِيًّا وَلَا نَصِيرًا (1)

Q. 4:173 “and they shall not find for them, apart from God, a friend or helper”

Q. 33:17 “they [the unbelievers] shall find for themselves, apart from God, neither protector nor helper”

7 خَالِدِينَ فِيهَا أَبَدًا لَا يَجِدُونَ وَلِيًّا وَلَا نَصِيرًا (2)

Q. 33:65 “therein [the Blaze] to dwell for ever; they [the unbelievers] shall find neither protector nor helper”

8 ثُمَّ لَا يَجِدُونَ وَلِيًا وَلَا نَصِيرًا (3)

Q. 48:22 “they would have … and found neither protector nor helper”

waliyyun/šafīʿun “protector/intercessor”

9 لَيْسَ لَهُمْ مِنْ دُونِهِ وَلِيٌّ وَلَا شَفِيعٌ (1)

Q. 6:51 “they have, apart from God, no protector and no intercessor”

10 لَيْسَ لَهَا مِنْ دُونِ اللَّهِ وَلِيٌّ وَلَا شَفِيعٌ (1)

Q. 6:70 “a soul … apart from God, it has no protector and no intercessor”

11 مَا لَكُمْ مِنْ دُونِهِ مِنْ وَلِيٍّ وَلَا شَفِيعٍ (1)

Q. 32:4 “Apart from Him, you have no protector neither mediator”

waliyyun/wāqin “protector/defender”

12 مَا لَكَ مِنَ اللَّهِ مِنْ وَلِيٍّ وَلَا وَاقٍ (1)

Q. 13:37 “thou shalt have no protector against God, and no defender”

šāfiʿun/ṣadīqun “intercessor/friend”

13 وَمَا أَضَلَّنَا إِلَّا الْمُجْرِمُونَ فَمَا لَنَا مِنْ شَافِعِينَ وَلَا صَدِيقٍ حَمِيمٍ (1)

Q. 26:100–101 “It was naught but the sinners that led us astray; so now we have no intercessors, no loyal friend;” see Section 4.3 below on the embellishment of the word pair.

ḥamīmun/šafīʿun “friend/intercessor”

14 مَا لِلظَّالِمِينَ مِنْ حَمِيمٍ وَلَا شَفِيعٍ (1)

Q. 40:18 “the evildoers have not one loyal friend, no intercessor”

3.2. Pairs of Words with Opposite Meanings

As the following sections will show, most opposite—or polar or antonym—word pairs can be interpreted as merisms that stand for the idea of ‘everything, all, everywhere, always.’31 In 1977, J. Krašovec presented a comprehensive study with 270 examples from Northwest Semitic, which initially received little attention. Years later, in 1983, he added 30 further examples from Biblical Hebrew. In the field of Classical Arabic, A. Fischer and A. Spitaler were probably the first to make a significant contribution to the subject.

3.2.1. Pairs for All-Encompassing

"Unseen/Visible", "Inward/Outward", "Concealing/Revealing"

The idea of the hidden and its opposite, the clearly visible, and of concealment and outward display is thematised in many suras of the Qurʾān. Reference is made to different subjects and objects, and it is formulated with lexically different word pairs. The meristic aspect is sometimes more and sometimes less recognisable, and sometimes both words are related to each other in a completely different way.

ġaybun/šahādatun "unseen/visible"

The pair of opposing words belongs to the formulae that describe God—God is the knower of the hidden and the visible, ʿālimu l-ġaybi wa-š-šahādati.

Context: (1) God knows everything (no. 1–6)

Examples:

1 وَهُوَ الَّذِي … عَالِمُ الْغَيْبِ وَالشَّهَادَةِ

Q. 6:73 “He is Knower of the Unseen and the visible”

2 ذَلِكَ عَالِمُ الْغَيْبِ وَالشَّهَادَةِ

Q. 32:6 “He is knower of the Unseen and the Visible”

3 قُلِ اللَّهُمَّ … عَالِمُ الْغَيْبِ وَالشَّهَادَةِ

Q. 39:46 “Say: o God, … who knowest the Unseen and the Visible”

4 هُوَ اللَّهُ … عَالِمُ الْغَيْبِ وَالشَّهَادَةِ

Q. 59:22 “He is knower of the Unseen and the Visible”

5 ثُمَّ تُرَدُّونَ إِلَى عَالِمِ الْغَيْبِ وَالشَّهَادَةِ

Q. 62:8 “then you shall be returned to the Knower of the Unseen and the Visible”

6 وَاللَّهُ … عَالِمُ الْغَيْبِ وَالشَّهَادَةِ

Q. 64:18 “God is … Knower He of the Unseen and the Visible”

ẓāhirun/bāṭinun "outward/inward"

The clearly visible (ẓhr) and the hidden (bṭn) are expressed in nominal or verbal phrases. What is meant is ‘everything, anything, of any kind.’

Contexts: (1) attribute of God (no. 5), (2) the blessings of God (no. 4), (3) the indecency of men (no. 1–3)

Examples:

1 وَذَرُوا ظَاهِرَ الإِثْمِ وَبَاطِنَهُ (3)

Q. 6:120 “Forsake the outward sin, and the inward”

2 وَلَا تَقْرَبُوا الْفَوَاحِشَ مَا ظَهَرَ مِنْهَا وَمَا بَطَنَ (3)

Q. 6:151 “and that you approach not any indecency outward or inward”

3 إِنَّمَا حَرَّمَ رَبِّيَ الْفَوَاحِشَ مَا ظَهَرَ مِنْهَا وَمَا بَطَنَ (3)

Q. 7:33 “My Lord has only forbidden indecencies, the inward and the outward”32

4 أَلَمْ تَرَوْا أَنَّ اللَّهَ … أَسْبَغَ عَلَيْكُمْ نِعَمَهُ ظَاهِرَةً وَبَاطِنَةً (2)

Q. 31:20 “Have you not seen how that God … has lavished on you His blessings, outward and inward”

5 هُوَ الْأَوَّلُ وَالآخِرُ وَالظَاهِرُ وَالْبَاطِنُ (1)

Q. 57:3 “God … He is the First and the Last, the Outward and the Inward”

"Concealing/revealing"

At the end of verse 3:154 we read wa-llāhu ʿalīmun bi-ḏāti ṣ-ṣudūri “and God knows the thoughts in the breasts.” This statement is found several times in the Qurʾān.33 Expressed more pointedly, the statement appears as a meristic phrase—“God knows what people hide and what they reveal.” This means that God knows everything about people, regardless of whether they are hiding or revealing something.

The two elements of a nominal word pair are closely connected with the conjunction wa- “and,” such as sirran wa-ʿalāniyatan “secretly and in public” (no. 1, 3). Verbal word pairs, on the other hand, usually form larger structures, in which the verbs are formed with an object or adverbial complement. In some verses, the two statements are connected with the conjunction aw “or;” cf. “God knows what you keep secret and (wa-) what you publish” (no. 4 ff.) and “whether you hide what is in your breasts or (aw) publish it, God knows it” (no. 11, 12, 14, 15).

Lexically different word pairs express concealing and revealing:

srr/ʿln (no. 1–7)

ḫfy/ʿln (no. 8–10)

bdw/ḫfy (no. 11–15)

bdw/ktm (no. 16–18)

srr/ǧhr (no. 19–21)

ǧhr/srr + ḫfy (no. 22)

ǧhr/ktm (no. 23)

ǧhr/ḫfy (no. 24)

The phrases are constructed verbally and/or nominally:

verb + verb in no. 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 20, 21

noun + noun in no. 1, 3, 19

noun + verb in no. 23, 24

verb + noun in no. 22

The sequence of both terms is different. In some cases, concealment comes first; in others, revealment comes first:

concealment + revealment in no. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 19, 20 21

revealment + concealment in no. 11, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 22, 23, 24

The object of the concealment and revelation is usually not specified. In some examples, however, al-qawlu “the saying, the speech” is the object of the word pair asarra/ǧahara bi- “to conceal/to proclaim” (no. 20, 21), of the verb ǧahara bi- (no. 22), and of the nominal phrase with ǧahrun “publishing” (no. 23).

Contexts: (1) God knows the people completely, their thoughts and their deeds (no. 2, 4–10, 12, 15–24), (2) God reckons with everything (no. 11), (3) God forgives all (no. 14), (4) people expend everything from God’s gifts (no. 1, 3), (5) hidden is what is not revealed (no. 13).

srr/ʿln

God knows everything about people; he not only knows what they openly reveal, but also what they treat as a secret. The examples no. 1 and 3 of the nominal word pair sirrun and ʿalāniyatun are in a different context. Here, the verses speak of possessions that people donate secretly or openly, which means ‘one way or another,’ ‘somehow.’

1 الَّذِينَ يُنْفِقُونَ أَمْوَالَهُمْ … سِرًّا وَعَلَانِيَةً (2)

Q. 2:274 “Those who expend their wealth …, secretly and in public”

2 أَلَا حِينَ يَسْتَغْشُونَ ثِيَابَهُمْ يَعْلَمُ مَا يُسِرُّونَ وَمَا يُعْلِنُونَ (1)

Q. 11:5 “behold, when they wrap themselves in their garments He knows what they secrete and what they publish”

3 وَأَنْفَقُوا مِمَّا رَزَقْنَاهُمْ سِرًّا وَعَلَانِيَةً (2)

Q. 13:22 “who … expend of that We have provided them, secretly and in public”

4 وَاللَّهُ يَعْلَمُ مَا تُسِرُّونَ وَمَا تُعْلِنُونَ (1)

Q. 16:19 “And God knows what you keep secret and what you publish”

5 لَا جَرَمَ أَنَّ اللَّهَ يَعْلَمُ مَا يُسِرُّونَ وَمَا يُعْلِنُونَ (1)

Q. 16:23 “Without a doubt God knows what you keep secret and what you publish”

6 إِنَّا نَعْلَمُ مَا يُسِرُّونَ وَمَا يُعْلِنُونَ (1)

Q. 36:76 “We know what they keep secret and what they publish”

7 وَيَعْلَمُ مَا تُسِرُّونَ وَمَا تُعْلِنُونَ (1)

Q. 64:4 “He knows what you conceal and what you publish”

ḫfy/ʿln

In examples no. 2, 4–7, which are almost identically formulated, we find the fourth stem aḫfā instead of ʾasarra.

8 رَبَّنَا إِنَّكَ تَعْلَمُ مَا نُخْفِي وَمَا نُعْلِنُ (1)

Q. 14:38 “Our Lord, Thou knowest what we keep secret and what we publish”

9 الَّذِي … يَعْلَمُ مَا تُخْفُونَ وَمَا تُعْلِنُونَ (1)

Q. 27:25 “God … knows what you conceal and what you publish”

10 وَأَنَا أَعْلَمُ بِمَا أَخْفَيْتُمْ وَمَا أَعْلَنْتُمْ (1)

Q. 60:1 “I know very well what you conceal and what you publish”

bdw/ḫfy

The use of the particle aw “or” (no. 11, 12, 14, 15) between the two opposite actions “to publish” (bdw IV) and “to hide” (ḫfy IV) clearly expresses that it does not matter what people do—God knows everything; cf. no. 21. The mutual exclusion of both actions, the “either—or,” also appears clearly in example no. 13 through the statement that people conceal what they do not openly reveal.

11 وَإِنْ تُبْدُوا مَا فِي أَنْفُسِكُمْ أَوْ تُخْفُوهُ يُحَاسِبْكُمْ بِهِ اللَّهُ (1)

Q. 2:284 “Whether you publish what is in your hearts or hide it, God shall make reckoning with you for it”

12 إِنْ ُتُخْفُوا مَا فِي صُدُورِكُمْ أَوْ تُبْدُوهُ يَعْلَمْهُ اللَّهُ (1)

Q. 3:29 “Say: ‚Whether you hide what is in your breasts or publish it, God knows it”

13 يُخْفُونَ فِي أَنْفُسِهِمْ مَا لَا يُبْدُونَ (1)

Q. 3:154 “They were concealing in their hearts that they show not to thee”

14 إِنْ تُبْدُوا خَيْرًا أَوْ تُخْفُوهُ أَوْ تَعْفُوا عَنْ سُوءٍ فَإِنَّ اللَّهَ كَانَ عَفُوًّ قَدِيرًا (1)

Q. 4:149 “If you do good openly or in secret or pardon an evil, surely God is All-pardoning, All-powerful”

15 إِنْ تُبْدُوا شَيْئًا أَوْ تُخْفُوهُ فَإِنَّ اللَّهَ كَانَ بِكُلِّ شَيْءٍ عَلِيمًا (1)

Q. 33:54 “Whether you reveal anything, or whether you conceal it, surely God has knowledge of everything”

bdw/ktm

In three almost identically formulated examples, examples no. 16–18, the root ktm (I. form) is used at the position where the root ḫfy (IV. form) appears in examples no. 11–15. Here, however, as in most places where the two opposing terms are used, they are formulated with the particle wa- “and.”

16 إِنِّي … وَأَعْلَمُ مَا تُبْدُونَ وَمَا كُنْتُمْ تَكْتُمُونَ (1)

Q. 2:33 “[God] And I know what things you reveal, and what you were hiding”

17 وَاللَّهُ يَعْلَمُ مَا تُبْدُونَ وَمَا تَكْتُمُونَ (1)

Q. 5:99 “and God knows what you reveal and what you hide”

18 وَاللَّهُ يَعْلَمُ مَا تُبْدُونَ وَمَا تَكْتُمُونَ (1)

Q. 24:29 “God knows what you reveal and what you hide”

srr/ǧhr

While in most of the examples given so far, the object of the actions “conceal” and “reveal” remains vague, here, “the speech” (al-qawlu) is mentioned as the object; see the introduction to this section.

19 وَهُوَ اللَّهُ … يَعْلَمُ سِرَّكُمْ وَجَهْرَكُمْ (1)

Q. 6:3 “He is God …; He knows your secrets, and what you publish”

20 سِوَاءٌ مِنْكُمْ مَنْ أَسَرَّ الْقَوْلَ وَمَنْ جَهَرَ بِهِ (1)

Q. 13:10 “Alike of you is he who conceals his saying, and he who proclaims it”

21 وَأَسِرُّوا قَوْلَكُمْ أَوِ اجْهَرُوا بِهِ إِنَّهُ عَلِيمٌ بِذَاتِ الصُّدُورِ (1)

Q. 67:13 “Be secret in your speech, or proclaim it. He knows the thoughts within the breasts”

ǧhr/srr + ḫfy

In the following example, man’s open speaking is combined with God’s knowledge of what is hidden. To intensify the statement by using the elative, see Section 5.2 below.

22 وَإِنْ تَجْهَرْ بِالْقَوْلِ فَإِنَّهُ يَعْلَمُ السِّرَّ وَأَخْفَى (1)

Q. 20:7 “Be thou loud in thy speech, yet surely He knows the secret and that yet more hidden”

ǧhr/ktm

The double statement is strengthened by mentioning yaʿlamu “he knows” twice; see Section 4.2. While the first element is constructed with a nominal object, the second shows a relative clause, with mā “that which” as the object; cf. no. 24.

23 إِنَّهُ يَعْلَمُ الْجَهْرَ مِنَ الْقَوْلِ وَيَعْلَمُ مَا تَكْتُمُونَ (1)

Q. 21:110 “Surely, He knows what is spoken aloud and He knows what you hide”

ǧhr/ḫfy

24 إِنَّهُ يَعْلَمُ الْجَهْرَ وَمَا يَخْفَى (1)

Q. 87:7 “surely He knows what is spoken aloud and what is hidden”

Ḍaḥika/Bakā “To Laugh/to Weep”

As the following examples show, God makes people laugh and cry. This can certainly be understood as a meristic phrase in the sense that people react accordingly to positive and negative things, i.e., to everything that God assigns to them.

Embellishment and amplification: In the Qurʾān, the two actions “laughing” and “crying” are also used non-meristically, whereby they are separated from each other in terms of content, on the one hand by adding a word pair crossing in terms of content (no. 1), see Section 6.2 below, and on the other hand by negating the second element (no. 3), see Section 6.3 below.

Context: (1) God determines what happens to people, and consequently also their reactions to it (no. 1–3)

Examples:

1 فَلْيَضْحَكُوا قَلِيلًا وَلْيَبْكُوا كَثِيرًا (1)

Q. 9:82 “Therefore let them laugh little, and weep much”

2 وَأَنَّهُ هُوَ أَضْحَكَ وَأَبْكَى (1)

Q. 53:43 “and that it is He [thy Lord] who makes to laugh, and that makes to weep”

3 أَفَمِنْ هَذَا الْحَدِيثِ تَعْجَبُونَ وَتَضْحَكُونَ وَلَا تَبْكُونَ (1)

Q. 53:60 “Do you then marvel at this discourse [a warner] (60) and do you laugh, and do you not weep”

Ḍarrun/Nafʿun “Harm/Benefit”

ḍarra/nafaʿa to hurt/to profit

The two opposing terms ḍarrun/nafʿun “harm/benefit”—as well as the corresponding verbal word pair ḍarra/nafaʿa “to harm/to benefit”—are not fixed in their sequence, as the following list shows:

lā … ḍarran wa-lā nafʿan (no. 1–4)

lā … nafʿan wa-lā ḍarran (no. 6–8)

lā yaḍurru-hū wa-lā yanfaʿu-hū (no. 11–12)

lā yanfaʿu-hū wa-lā yaḍurru-hū (no. 13–17)

In some cases, the word pair is used in a positive statement (no. 5, 9, 18) or in a combination of one positive and one negative statement (no. 10). Mostly, however, the word pair occurs in a negative sentence, as the list above has shown.

The meristic meaning of “something has no benefit and no harm” and “something has neither benefit nor harm” is ‘something can do nothing’ and ‘something is pointless and useless.’ When the question is asked whether something is beneficial or harmful (no. 17), this is also generally meant as ‘does it make sense?,’ ‘does it have an effect?’ Not all examples in the Qurʾān show a meristic use. The first term can be supplemented and thus emphasised by mentioning the negated opposite (no. 10).

Contexts: (1) he cannot do anything for himself (no. 2, 4, 6, 7), (2) they cannot do anything for each other (no. 8), (3) to worship something not effective (no. 1, 11–16), (4) the Golden Calf is useless (no. 3), (5) to be effective (no. 17), (6) God does what he wants (no. 5), (7) more harm than good (no. 9), (8) harm and not benefit (no. 10)

Nominal phrasing with ḍarrun/nafʿun harm/benefit

1 أَتَعْبُدُونَ مِنْ دُونِ اللَّهِ مَا لَا يَمْلِكُ لَكُمْ ضَرًّا وَلَا نَفْعًا (3)

Q. 5:76 “Do you serve, apart from God, that which cannot hurt or profit you?”

2 قُلْ لَا أَمْلِكُ لِنَفْسِي ضَرًّا وَلَا نَفْعًا (1)

Q. 10:49 “Say: I have no power to profit for myself, or hurt”

3 أَفَلَا يَرَوْنَ أَلَّا يَرْجِعُ إِلَيْهِمْ قَوْلًا وَلَا يَمْلِكُ لَهُمْ ضَرًّا وَلَا نَفْعًا (2)

Q. 20:89 “Did they not see that thing returned no speech unto them, neither had any power to hurt or profit them?”

4 وَاتَّخَذُوا مِنْ دُونِهِ آلِهَةً لَا يَخْلُقُونَ شَيْئًا وَهُمْ يُخلَقُونَ وَلَا يَمْلِكُونَ لِأَنْفُسِهِمْ ضَرًّا وَلَا نَفْعًا (1)

Q. 25:3 “Yet they have taken to them gods, apart from Him, that create nothing and themselves are created, and have no power to hurt or profit themselves”

5 فَمَنْ يَمْلِكُ لَكُمْ مِنَ اللَّهِ شَيْئًا إِنْ أَرَادَ بِكُمْ ضَرًّا أَوْ أَرَادَ بِكُمْ نَفْعًا (6)

Q. 48:11 “Who can avail you aught against God, if He desires hurt for you, or desires profit for you?”

Phrasing with nafʿun/ḍarrun benefit/harm

6 لَا أَمْلِكُ لِنَفْسِي نَفْعًا وَلَا ضَرًّا إِلَّا مَا شَاءِ اللَّهُ (1)

Q. 7:188 “I have no power to profit for myself; or hurt, but as God will”

7 أَفَاتَّخَذْتُمْ مِنْ دُونِهِ أَوْلِيَاءَ لَا يَمْلِكُونَ لِأَنْفُسِهِمْ نَفْعًا وَلَا ضَرًّا (1)

Q. 13:16 “Then have you taken unto you others beside Him to be your protectors, even such as have no power to profit or hurt themselves?”

8 فَالْيَوْمَ لَا يَمْلِكُ بَعْضُكُمْ لِبَعْضٍ نَفْعًا وَلَا ضَرًّا (2)

Q. 34:42 “Therefore today none of you shall have power to profit or hurt another”

The equal weighting of both terms is shifted in Q. 22:13 in favour of “harm”—“more harm than benefit”—and shows an example of how the opposing word pair can be constructed in a non-meristic sense.

9 يَدْعُوا لَمَنْ ضَرُّهُ أَقْرَبُ مِنْ نَفْعِهِ (7)

Q. 22:13 “He calls upon him who is likelier to hurt him, rather than to profit him”

Verbal phrasing with mit ḍarra/nafaʿa to harm/to benefit

10 وَيَتَعَلَّمُونَ مَا يَضُرُّهُمْ وَلَا يَنْفَعُهُمْ (8)

Q. 2:102 “And they learned what hurt them, and did not profit them;” the first statement “to hurt someone” is reinforced by the following negated statement of “not benefit someone;” cf. Section 6.3 below.

11 وَيَعْبُدُونَ مِنْ دُونِ اللَّهِ مَا لَا يَضُرُّهُمْ وَلَا يَنْفَعُهُمْ (3)

Q. 10:18 “They serve, apart from God, what hurts them not neither profits them”

12 يَدْعُوا مِنْ دُونِ اللَّهِ مَا لَا يَضُرُّهُ وَمَا لَا يَنْفَعُهُ (3)

Q. 22:12 “He calls, apart from God, upon that which hurts him not, and which neither profits him anything”

Verbal phrasing with nafaʿa/ḍarra to benefit/to harm

13 أَتَدْعُوا مِنْ دُونِ اللَّهِ مَا لَا يَنْفَعُنَا وَلَا يَضُرُّنَا (3)

Q. 6:71 “Shall we call, apart from God, on that which neither profits nor hurts us”

14 وَلَا تَدْعُ مِنْ دُونِ اللَّهِ مَا لَا يَنْفَعُكَ وَلَا يَضُرُّكَ (3)

Q. 10:106 “and do not call, apart from God, on that which neither profits nor hurts thee”

15 أَفَتَعْبُدُونَ مِنْ دُونِ اللَّهِ مَا لَا يَنْفَعُكُمْ شَيْئًا وَلَا يَضُرَّكُمْ (3)

Q. 21:66 “and do you serve, apart from God, that which profits you nothing; neither hurts you?”

16 وَيَعْبُدُونَ مِنْ دُونِ اللَّهِ مَا لَا يَنْفَعُهُمْ وَلَا يَضُرُّهُمْ (3)

Q. 25:55 “And they serve, apart from God, what neither profits them nor hurts them”

17 هَلْ يَسْمَعُونَكُمْ إِذْ تَدْعُونَ أَوْ يَنْفَعُونَكُمْ أَوْ يَضُرُّونَ (5)

Q. 26:72–73 “Do they [the idols] hear you when you call, or do they profit you, or harm?”

Raṭbun/Yābisun "Fresh/Withered"

In the following Qurʾānic verse we find the expression “neither fresh nor dry.” It stands as a merism—here in a negative statement—for ‘nothing at all.’

1 وَلَا حَبَّةٍ فِي ظُلُمَاتِ الْأَرْضِ وَلَا رَطْبٍ وَلَا يَابِسٍ إِلَّا فِي كِتَابٍ مُبِينٍ

Q. 6:59 “Not a grain in the earth’s shadows, not a thing, fresh or withered, but it is in a Book Manifest”

In the following verse by the poet Imruʾ al-Qays (496–544 CE), both attributes are arranged side by side in a positive statement:

كَأَنَّ قُلُوبَ الطَّيْرِ رَطْبًا وَيَابِسًا لَدَى وَكْرِهَا الْعُنَّابُ وَالْحَشَفُ الْبَالِي

Imruʾ al-Qays 38,4 (verse 51); see Ullmann (1970–2009) II 472 b 30 (ldy) with further sources.

The question arises whether the two qualities—after ka-anna “whereby it is as if” both in the accusative—must refer to the hearts of the birds or whether the second term could refer to the berries and the dates, thus extending the contrast of “juicy” and “dry” to different subjects: “whereby it is as if the hearts of the birds were juicy, and dry are in their nests the berries and shrivelled dates.” However, it seems too far-fetched to see in this verse a summarising, all-embracing merism that would not take into account the picture of the birds’ nests drawn here.

Stewart (2021) 285 quotes the following saying from the historical work Taʾrīḫ ar-rusul wa-l-mulūk by aṭ-Ṭabarī (d. 939 CE) I 1933,6 (year 11):

وَاللَّيْلِ الدَّامِسْ وَالذِّئْبِ الْْهَامِسْ مَا قَطَعَتْ أُسَيِّدُ مِنْ رَطْبٍ وَلَا يَابِسْ

”By the dark night, and by the whispering wolf: The Usayyid have cut neither fresh nor dried dates”

The saying uses the image of the unsuccessful date harvest to say that the Usayyid tribe could not accomplish anything, could not achieve anything.

3.2.2. Local Pairs

Word pairs that combine two opposing local terms express the idea of ‘everywhere’—in a negative statement, ‘nowhere.’ There are several examples of this in the Qurʾān. The most frequently used phrase for the universe is certainly as-samāʾu (or the plural as-samāwātu) wa-l-arḍu “heaven(s) and earth,” which would be worth a separate study due to the abundance of evidence.34 A few examples may suffice here:

1 لِلَّهِ مَا فِي السَّمَاوَاتِ وَمَا فِي الْأَرْضِ

Q. 2:284 “To God belongs all that is in the heavens and earth”

2 إِنَّ اللَّهَ لَا يَخْفَى عَلَيْهِ شَيْءٌ فِي الْأَرْضِ وَلَا فِي السَّمَاءِ

Q. 3:5 “From God nothing whatever is hidden in heaven and earth”

3 وَلِلَّهِ مُلْكُ السَّمَاوَاتِ وَالْأَرْضِ

Q. 24:42 “To God belongs the kingdom of the heavens and the earth;” cf. Bannister (2014) chap. 2.2.14.

4 وَمَا أَنْتُمْ بِمُعْجِزِينَ فِي الْأَرْضِ وَلَا فِي السَّمَاءِ

Q. 29:22 “You are not able to frustrate Him either in the earth or in heaven”

Mašriqun/Maġribun "East/West"

When it is said in the Qurʾān that “God is Lord over East and West,” it is the meristic description of ‘God is Lord over the whole world,’ similar to the phrase “God is Lord over heaven and earth,” meaning ‘God is Lord over the whole universe.’ It is said about piety, for example, that it does not depend on whether the face is turned to the east or west—a generalising, essentially vague statement, because it does not matter which direction you turn your face to when praying. Perhaps the meristic all-encompassing statement plays a role in the fact that the two terms are also constructed in the dual (no. 6) and plural (no. 4, 7).35

Embellishment and amplification: For alliteration see Section 4.1 below; for the repetition of the subject rabbun “Lord” (no. 6), see Section 4.2 below. For the filling up with the phrase wa-mā bayna-humā “and what is between them” (no. 5), see Section 6.1 below.

Contexts: (1) the whole world belongs to God (no. 1, 2, 5–8), (2) prayer direction (no. 3), (3) distribution of land to the people (no. 4)

Examples:

1 وَلِلَّهِ الْمَشْرِقُ وَالْمَغْرِبُ (1)

Q. 2:115 “To God belong the East and the West”

2 قُلْ لِلَّهِ الْمَشْرِقُ وَالْمَغْرِبُ (1)

Q. 2:142 “Say: ‚To God belong the East and the West”

3 لَيْسَ البِرَّ أَنْ تُوَلُّوا وُجُوهَكُمْ قِبَلَ الْمَشْرِقِ وَالْمَغْرِبِ (2)

Q. 2:177 “It is not piety, that you turn your faces to the East and to the West”

4 وَأَوْرَثْنَا الْقَوْمَ الَّذِينَ كَانُوا يُسْتَضْعَفُونَ مَشَارِقَ الْأَرْضِ وَمَغَارِبَهَا الَّتِي بَارَكْنَا فِيهَا (3)

Q. 7:137 “And We bequeasted upon the people that were abased all the east and the west of the land We had blessed”

5 قَالَ رَبُّ الْمَشْرِقِ وَالْمَغْرِبِ وَمَا بَيْنَهُمَا (1)

Q. 26:28 “He said, ‘The Lord of the East and West, and what between them is”

6 رَبُّ الْمَشْرِقَيْنِ وَرَبُّ الْمَغْرِبَيْنِ (1)

Q. 55:17 “Lord of the Two Easts, Lord of the Two Wests”

7 فَلَا أُقْسِمُ بِرَبِّ الْمَشَارِقِ وَالْمَغَارِبِ (1)

Q. 70:40 “I swear by the Lord of the Easts and Wests”; cf. Q. 37:5 with the first element only: rabbu l-mašāriqi “Lord of the Easts”

8 رَبُّ الْمَشْرِقِ وَالْمَغْرِبِ لَا إِلَاهَ إِلَّا هُوَ (1)

Q. 73:9 “[And remember the Name of thy Lord …] Lord of the East and the West”

Barrun/Baḥrun "Land/Sea"

A meristic phrase that indicates ‘everywhere’ is also the combination of barrun “land” and baḥrun “sea.”36

Embellishment: The terms are characterised by alliteration; see Section 4.1 below.

Contexts: (1) God knows what exists everywhere (no. 1), (2) God lets people move everywhere (no. 2), (3) calamity as punishment is everywhere (no. 3), (4) the darkness that reigns everywhere (no. 4–6).

Examples:

1 وَيَعْلَمُ مَا فِي الْبَرِّ وَالْبَحْرِ (1)

Q. 6:59 “He knows what is in land and sea”

2 هُوَ الَّذِي يُسَيِّرُكُمْ فِي الْبَرِّ وَالْبَحْرِ (2)

Q. 10:22 “It is He who conveys you on the land and the sea”

3 ظَهَرَ الْفَسَادُ فِي الْبَرِّ وَالْبَحْرِ بِمَا كَسَبَتْ أَيْدِي النَّاسِ (3)

Q. 30:41 “Corruption has appeared in the land and sea”

4 قُلْ مَنْ يُنَجِّيكُمْ مِنْ ظُلُمَاتِ الْبَرِّ وَالْبَحْرِ (4)

Q. 6:63 “Say: ‚Who delivers you from the shadows of land and sea?”

5 وَهُوَ الَّذِي جَعَلَ لَكُمُ النُّجُومَ لِتَهْتَدُوا بِهَا فِي ظُلُمَاتِ الْبَرِّ وَالْبَحْرِ (4)

Q. 6:97 “It is He who has appointed for you the stars, that by them you might be guided in the shadows of land and sea”

6 أَمَنْ يَهْدِيكُمْ فِي ظُلُمَاتِ الْبَرِّ وَالْبَحْرِ (4)

Q. 27:63 “He who guides you in the shadows of the land and the sea”

3.2.3. Temporal Pairs

Laylun/Nahārun "Night/Day"

A merism for positive ‘always, at all times’ and negative ‘never, at no time,’ which is common in many languages, is formed by combining the terms “night” and “day.”37 The statement is tied to the original idea of “day” and “night” in varying degrees. However, the expression is separated from its original meaning if the action in question does not normally take place at night (no. 1). If both terms are connected with aw “or”—“whether by night or by day”—a general vagueness in the sense of ‘at any time, whenever’ is expressed (no. 3, 11).

Contexts: (1) to donate wealth at any time (no. 1), (2) all times belong to God (no. 2), (3) God’s decision always takes place (no. 3), (4) the angels praise God unceasingly (no. 4, 8), (5) God has created everything (no. 5), (6) to always protect the people (no. 6), (7) to travel in safety at all times (no. 10), (8) constant intrigues (no. 7), (9) to preach to the people always (no. 9), (10) God’s punishment will come at some point (no. 11).

Examples:

1 الَّذِينَ يُنْفِقُونَ أَمْوَالَهُمْ بِاللَّيْلِ وَالنَّهَارِ سِرًّا وَعَلَانِيَةً فَلَهُمْ أَجْرُهُمْ عِنْدَ رَبِّهِمْ (1)

Q. 2:274 “Those who expend their wealth night and day, secretly and in public, their wage awaits them with their Lord;” see Section Unseen/Visible, Inward/Outward, Concealing/Revealing Concealing/revealing, srr/ʿln no.1.

2 وَلَهُ مَا سَكَنَ فِي اللَّيْلِ وَالنَّهَارِ (2)

Q. 6:13 “And to Him belongs whatsoever inhabits the night and the day”

3 وَظَنَّ أَهْلُهَا أَنَّهُمْ قَادِرُونَ عَلَيْهَا أَتَاهَا أَمْرُنَا لِيْلًا أَوْ نَهَارًا (3)

Q. 10:24 “and its inhabitants think they have power over it, Our command comes upon it by night or day”

4 وَمَنْ عِنْدَهُ … يُسَبِّحُونَ اللَّيْلَ وَالنَّهَارَ لَا يَفْتُرُونَ (4)

Q. 21:20 “and those who are with Him …, (20) glorifying Him by night and in the daytime and never failing”

5 وَهُوَ الَّذِي خَلَقَ اللَّيْلَ وَالنَّهَارَ وَالشَّمْسَ وَالْقَمَرَ (5)

Q. 21:33 “It is He who craeted the night and the day, the sun and the moon;” cf. Bannister (2014) chap. 7.2.2 example 2.

6 قُلْ مَنْ يَكْلَؤُكُمْ بِاللَّيْلِ وَالنَّهَارِ مِنَ الرَّحْمَانِ (6)

Q. 21:42 “Say: ‚Who shall guard you by night and in the daytime from the All-merciful?”

7 وَقَالَ الَّذِينَ اسْتُضْعِفُوا لِلَّذِينَ اسْتَكْبَرُوا بَلْ مَكْرُ اللَّيْلِ وَالنَّهَارِ (8)

Q. 34:33 “And those that were abased will say to those that waxed proud, ‚Nay, but devising night and day”

8 فَالَّذِينَ عِنْدَ رَبِّكَ يُسَبِّحُونَ لَهُ بِاللَّيْلِ وَالنَّهَارِ وَهُمْ لَا يَسْئَمُونَ (4)

Q. 41:38 “yet those who are with thy Lord do glorify Him by night and day, and grow not weary”

9 قَالَ رَبِّ إِنِّي دَعَوْتُ قَوْمِي لَيْلًا وَنَهَارًا (9)

Q. 71:5 “He [Noah] said: My Lord, I have called my people by night and by day”

We find the combination of layālin “nights” and ayyāmun “days” in one single case:

10 سِيرُوا فِيهَا لَيَالِيَ وَأَيَّامًا آمِنِينَ (7)

Q. 34:18 “Journey among them by night and day in security”

In another Qurʾānic verse, the term bayātun “the last part of the night” is used instead of the general normal-language term for “night”–“(still) at night or (already) in the daytime.” (See Müller (1993), p. 113 below)

11 قُلْ أَرَأَيْتُمْ إِنْ أَتَاكُمْ عَذَابُهُ بَيَاتًا أَوْ نَهَارًا (10)

Q. 10:50 “Say: ‚Have you considered? If His chastisement comes upon you by night or day”

In the Qurʾān there are various statements about ‘night/day,’ which are not always meant in the sense of a merism, but contain other aspects that attribute different characteristics and meanings to the night and the day. Examples of the different contexts are as follows:38

‣

God has appointed the night and the day as two signs (ǧaʿalnā l-layla wa-n-nahāra āyatayni) Q. 17:12, 41:37

‣

God subjected to you the night and day (saḫḫara la-kumū l-layla wa-n-nahāra) Q. 14:33, 16:12 (Cf. Bannister (2014), chap. 7.2.2, example 2)

‣

God has appointed for you night and day, for you to repose in and seek after His bounty (ǧaʿala la-kumū l-layla wa-n-nahāra li-taskunū fī-hi wa-li-tabtaġū min faḍli-hī) Q. 28:73, ähnlich 30:23

‣

God made for you the night to repose in it, and the day, to see (ǧaʿala la-kumū l-layla li-taskunū fī-hi wa-n-nahāra mubṣiran) Q. 10:67, 27:86, 40:61

‣

God appointed night for a garment, and He appointed day for a livelihood (ǧaʿalnā l-layla libāsan wa-ǧaʿalnā n-nahāra maʿāšan) Q. 78:10–11, similar 25:47

‣

Go recalls you by night, and He knows what you work by day (huwa llaḏī yatawaffā-kum bi-l-layli wa-yaʿlamu mā ǧaraḥtum bi-n-nahāri ṯumma yabʿaṯu-kum fī-hi) Q. 6:60

‣

To God belongs the alternation of night and day (la-hū ḫtilāfu l-layli wa-n-nahāri) Q. 23:80, similar 2:164, 3:190, 10:6, 45:5

‣

God makes the night to enter into the day and makes the day to enter into the night (yūliǧu l-layla fī n-nahāri wa-yūliǧu n-nahāra fī l-layli) Q. 3:27, 22:61, 31:29, 35:13, 57:6

‣

God … wrapping night about the day, and wrapping the day about the night (yukawwiru l-layla ʿalā n-nahāri wa-yukawwiru n-nahāra ʿalā l-layli) Q. 39:5

‣

God turns about the day and the night (yuqallibu llāhu l-layla wa-n-nahāra) Q. 24:44

‣

God made the night and day a succession (ǧaʿala l-layla wa-n-nahāra ḫilfatan) Q. 25:62

‣

A sign for them is the night, God strip it of the day (āyatun la-humū l-laylu naslaḫu min-hu n-nahāra) Q. 36:37

‣

God … covering the day with the night (allāhu llaḏī … yūġšī l-layla n-nahāra) Q. 7:54, 13:3

‣

Neither does the night outstrip the day (wa-lā l-laylu sābiqu n-nahāri) Q. 36:40

‣

By the day when it displays him [the sun] and by the night when it enshrouds him (wa-n-nahāri iḏā ǧallā-hā wa-l-layli iḏā yaġšā-hā) Q. 91:3–4

"Morning/Evening"

The contrasting pair ‘morning/evening’39 can show a meristic meaning in various contexts, while in others a strong polarisation occurs, with different actions being linked to the individual elements. It is not always possible to interpret with certainty whether, for example, in some verses it is meant that the believers should worship God only in the early morning and late evening or ‘always.’

The word pair appears with different lexical variants:

bukratun/aṣīlun “morning/evening” (no. 1–4)

bukratun/ʿašiyyun “morning/evening” (no. 5, 6)

ašiyyun/ibkārun “evening/morning” (no. 7, 8)

ašiyyun/išrāqun “evening/morning” (no. 9)

ġadātun/ʿašiyyun “morning/evening” (no. 10, 11)

ġuduwwun/ʿašiyyun “morning/evening” (no. 12)

ġuduwwun/āṣālun “morning/evenings” (no. 13–15)

We find the word pair in the accusative (no. 1–6) or after the preposition bi- (no. 7–11, 13–15).

Contexts: (1) tales are recited at any time (no. 1), (2) praising God in the morning and evening (no. 2–5, 7–11, 13–15), (3) in paradise, people are always provided for (no. 6), (4) the folk of Pharaoh is always exposed to the Fire (no. 12).

bukratun/aṣīlun morning/evening

1 وَقَالُوا أَسَاطِيرُ الْأَوَّلِينَ اكْتَتَبَهَا فَهِىَ تُمْلَى عَلَيْهِ بُكْرَةً وَأَصِيلًا (1)

Q. 25:5 “They say, ‘Fairy-tales of the ancients that he has had written down, so that they are recited to him at the dawn and in the evening’”

2 يَأَيُّهَا الَّذِينَ آمَنُوا اذْكُرُوا اللَّهَ ذِكْرًا كَثِيرًا وَسَبِّحُوهُ بُكْرَةً وَأَصِيلًا (2)

Q. 33:42 “O believers, remember God oft, and give Him glory at the dawn and in the evening”

3 لِتُؤْمِنُوا بِاللَّهِ وَرَسُولِهِ وَتُعَزِّرُوهُ وَتُوَقِّرُوهُ وَتُسَبِّحُوهُ بُكْرَةً وَأَصِيلًا (2)

Q. 48:9 “that you may believe in God and His Messenger and succour Him, and reverence Him, and that you may give Him glory at the dawn and in the evening”

4 وَاذْكُرِ اسْمَ رَبِّكَ بُكْرَةً وَأَصِيلًا (2)

Q. 76:25 “And remember the Name of thy Lord at dawn and in the evening”

bukratun/ʿašiyyun early morning/late evening

5 فَخَرَجَ عَلَى قَوْمِهِ مِنَ الْمِحْرَابِ فَأَوْحَى إِلَيْهِمْ أَنْ سَبِّحُوا بُكْرَةً وَعَشِيًّا (2)

Q. 19:11 “So he came forth unto his people from the Sanctuary, then he made signal to them, ‚Give you glory at dawn and evening‘”

6 لَا يَسْمَعُونَ فِيهَا لَغْوًا إِلَّا سَلَامًا وَلَهُمْ رِزْقُهُمْ فِيهَا بُكْرَةً وَعَشِيًّا (3)

Q. 19:62 “There they shall hear no idle talk, but only ‘Peace.’ There they shall have their provision at dawn and evening;” see Ullmann (1970–2009) II 909 a 10 (lġw)

ʿašiyyun/ibkārun late evening/dawn

7 وَاذْكُرْ رَبَّكَ كَثِيرًا وَسَبِّحْ بِالْعَشِيِّ وَالْإِبْكَارِ (2)

Q. 3:41 “And mention thy Lord oft, and give glory at evening and dawn”

8 وَاسْتَغْفِرْ لِذَنْبِكَ وِسَبِّحْ بِحَمْدِ رَبِّكَ بِالْعَشِيِّ وَالْإِبْكَارِ (2)

Q. 40:55 “And ask forgiveness for thy sin, and proclaim the praise of thy Lord at evening and dawn”

ʿašiyyun/išrāqun evening/sunrise

9 إِنَّا سَخَّرْنَا الْجِبَالَ مَعَهُ يُسَبِّحْنَ بِالْعَشِيِّ وَالْإِشْرَاقِ (2)

Q. 38:18 “With hin We subjected the mountains to give glory at evening and sunrise”

ġadātun/ʿašiyyun morning/late evening

10 وَلَا تَطْرُدِ الَّذِينَ يَدْعُونَ رَبَّهُمْ بِالْغَدَوةِ وَالْعَشِيِّ يُرِيدُونَ وَجْهَهُ (2)

Q. 6:52 “And do not drive away those who call upon their Lord at morning and evening desiring His countenance”

11 وَاصْبِرْ نَفْسَكَ مَعَ الَّذِينَ يَدْعُونَ رَبَّهُمْ بِالْغَدَوةِ وَالْعَشِيِّ يُرِيدُونَ وَجْهَهُ (2)

Q. 18:28 “And restrain thyself with those who call upon their Lord at morning and evening, desiring His countenance”

ġuduwwun/ʿašiyyun early morning/late evening

12 وَحَاقَ بِئَالِ فِرْعَوْنَ سُوءُ الْعَذَابِ النَّارُ يُعْرَضُونَ عَلَيْهَا غُدُوًّا وَعَشِيًّا (4)

Q. 40:46 “and there encompassed the folk of Pharaoh the evil chastisement, the Fire, to which they shall be exposed morning and evening”

ġuduwwun/āṣālun morning/evenings

In the following examples, the plural āṣālun (singular aṣīlun) is combined with the singular ġuduwwun.

13 وَاذْكُرْ رَبَّكَ فِي نَفْسِكَ تَضَرُّعًا وَخِيفَةً وَدُونَ الْجَهْرِ مِنَ الْقَوْلِ بِالْغُدُوِّ وَالْآصَالِ (2)

Q. 7:205 “Remember thy Lord in thy soul, humbly and fearfully, not loud of voice, at morn and eventide”

14 وَلِلَّهِ يَسْجُدُ مَنْ فِي السَّمَاوَاتِ وَالْأَرِضِ طَوْعًا وَكَرْهًا وَظِلَالُهُمْ بِالْغُدُوِّ وَالْآصَالِ (2)

Q. 13:15 “To God bow all who are in the heavens and the earth, willingly or unwillingly, as do their shadows also in the mornings and the evenings”

15 وَيُذْكَرَ فِيهَا اسْمُهُ يُسَبِّحُ لَهُ فِيهَا بِالْغُدُوِّ وَالْآصَالِ رِجَالٌ لَا تُلْهِبِهِمْ تِجَارَةً وَلَا بَيْعٌ عَنْ ذِكْرِ اللَّهِ (2)

Q. 24:36 “therein gloryfying Him, in the mornings and the evenings, are men whom neither commerce nor trafficking diverts from the remembrance of God”

Min Qablu/Min Baʿdu "Before/After"

The two terms “before” and “after” also show a meristic phrase for ‘always, continually, at all times.’40

1 قَالُوا أُوذِينَا مِنْ قَبْلِ أَنْ تَأْتِينَا وَمِنْ بَعْدِ مَا جِئْتَنَا

Q. 7:129 “They said, ‘we have been hurt before thou camest to us, and after thou camest to us‘”

2 لِلَّهِ الْأَمْرُ مِنْ قَبْلُ وَمِنْ بَعْدُ

Q. 30:4 “To God belongs the command before and after;” cf. Fischer 1924, 56 qablan wa-baʿdan “vorher und nachher” [before and after].

3.2.4. Local/Temporal Pairs

One of the most prominent meristic word pairs in the Qurʾān, which oscillates between a local and a temporal statement, is certainly ad-dunyā wa-l-āḫiratu “this world and the hereafter.” The wealth of examples must be reserved for a separate study; here are a few examples:

1 وَمَنْ يَرْتَدِدْ مِنْكُمْ عَنْ دِينِهِ فَيَمُتْ وَهُوَ كَافِرٌ فَأُولَائِكَ حَبِطَتْ أَعْمَالُهُمْ فِي الدُّنْيَا وَالْآخِرَةِ

Q. 2:217 “and whosoever of you turns from his religion, and dies disbelieving—their works have failed in this world and the next”

2 يَا مَرْيَمُ إِنَّ اللَّهَ يُبَشِّرُكِ بِكَلِمَةٍ مِنْهُ اسْمُهُ الْمَسِيحُ عِيسَى ابْنُ مَرْيَمَ وَجِيهًا فِي الدُّنْيَا وَالآخِرَةِ

Q. 3:45 “’Mary! God gives thee good tidings of a Word from Him whose name is Messiah, Jesus, son of Mary; high honoured shall he be in this world and the next”

3 فَأَمَّا الَّذِينَ كَفَرُوا فَأُعَذِّبُهُمْ عَذَابًا شّدِيدًا فِي الدُّنْيَا وَالآخِرَةِ

Q. 3:56 “As for the unbelievers, I will chastise them with a terrible chastisement in this world and the next

4 رَبِّ … أَنْتَ وَلِيِّ فِي الدُّنْيَا وَالآخِرَةِ

Q. 12:101 “O my Lord … Thou art my Protector in this world and the next”

5 لَا جَرَمَ أَنَّمَا تَدْعُونَنِي إِلَيْهِ لَيْسَ لَهُ دَعْوَةٌ فِي الدُّنْيَا وَلَا فِي الْآخِرَةِ

Q. 40:43 “No doubt that what you call me to has no call heard, in this world or in the world to come”

Bayna Yaday-Hi/Ḫalfa-Hū "Before Someone/Behind or: After Someone"

Both prepositional phrases are combined to form a meristic statement, which has a local sense in some contexts, a temporal in others, and remains vague in still others.

Wording: The phrase appears in the Qurʾān in two different versions:

mā bayna yaday-hi wa-mā ḫalfa-hū “what is before him and what is behind him” (no. 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 12). The phrase is subject (no. 4) or object (no. 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 12).

min bayni yaday-hi wa-min ḫalfi-hī “before him and behind him” (no. 3, 9, 11, 13, 14). The phrase is used adverbially.

The phrase refers grammatically to the third-person masculine singular (no. 3, 13, 14), third person masculine plural (no. 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12), third-person feminine singular (no. 1), second-person masculine plural (no. 10), or first-person plural (no. 4).

Meaning: The phrase bayna yaday-hi literally means “between his hands.” What is meant is local “before him, before his eyes, in his presence” or temporal “before him, before his time.” Together with ḫalfa-hū “behind him, behind his back, after him, after his time,” a phrase for ‘everywhere, in every place’ or ‘always, at all times’ is generated.

The statement “what lies before and what lies behind him” or “what comes before and what comes after him” stands for ‘everything, all.’ In some cases, it does not seem clear whether a local or temporal statement is intended, which is why translations interpret it differently. The phrase is probably one of the most widely used merisms in the Qurʾān.

Embellishment: For the repetition of the subject in the second part of the phrase (no. 9), see Section 4.2 below. For the common phrase “and what is in between” (no. 4), which fills the two elements of a merismus, see Section 6.1 below.

Local context (place): guardian of the messenger (no. 14), guardian of the believer (no. 3), the unbelievers pay no attention (no. 8), the unbelievers are completely shielded (no. 9)

Temporal context (time): a warning for all people (no. 1), God knows the past and the future of people (no. 2, 5–7), fear everything! (no. 10), the companions portray everything in beautiful light (no. 12), there were warnings at all times (no. 13).

Unclear interpretation (p/t): God owns everything before and after them, or: everything in their past and future (no. 4), the messengers came to them from all sides, or: the messengers before and after the ʿĀd and Ṯamūd (no. 11)

Examples:

1 فَجَعَلْنَاهَا نَكَالًا لِمَا بَيْنَ يَدَيْهَا وَمَا خَلْفَهَا وَمَوْعِظَةً لِلْمُتَّقِينَ (t)

Q. 2:66 “And We made it a punishment exemplary for all the former times and for the latter, and an admonition to such as are godfearing”

2 يَعْلَمُ مَا بَيْنَ أَيْدِيهِمْ وَمَا خَلْفَهُمْ وَلَا يُحِيطُونَ بِشَيْءٍ مِنْ عِلْمِهِ إِلَّا بِمَا شَاءَ (t)

Q. 2:255 “He [God] knows what lies before them and what is after them, and they comprehend not anything of His knowledge save such as He wills”

3 لَهُ مُعَقِّبَاتٌ مِنْ بَيْنِ يَدَيْهِ وَمِنْ خَلْفِهِ يَحْفَظُونَهُ مِنْ أَمْرِ اللَّهِ (p)

Q. 13:11 “he [the believer] has attendant angels, before him and behind him, watching over him by God’s command”

4 وَمَا نَتَنَزَّلُ إِلَّا بِأَمْرِ رَبِّكَ لَهُ مَا بَيْنَ أَيْدِينَا وَمَا خَلْفَنَا وَمَا بَيْنَ ذَلِكَ (p/t)

Q. 19:64 “We come not down, save at the commandment of thy Lord. To Him belongs all that is before us, and all that is behind us, and all between that;” s. Section 6.1 no. 2 below

5 يَعْلَمُ مَا بَيْنَ أَيْدِيهِمْ وَمَا خَلْفَهُمْ وَلَا يُحِيطُونَ بِهِ عِلْمًا (t)

Q. 20:110 “He [God] knows what is before them and behind them, and they comprehend Him not in knowledge”

6 يَعْلَمُ مَا بَيْنَ أَيْدِيهِمْ وَمَا خَلْفَهُمْ وَلَا يَشْفَعُونَ إِلَّا لِمَنِ ارْتَضَى (t)

Q. 21:28 “He [God] knows what is before them and behind them, and they intercede not save for him whom He is well-pleased”

7 يَعْلَمُ مَا بَيْنَ أَيْدِيهِمْ وَمَا خَلْفَهُمْ وَإِلَى اللَّهِ تُرْجَعُ الْأُمُورُ (t)

Q. 22:76 “He [God] knows whatsoever is before them and behind them, and unto God all matiers are returned”

8 أَفَلَمْ يَرَوْا إِلَى مَا بَيْنَ أَيْدِيهِمْ وَمَا خَلْفَهُمْ مِنَ السَّمَاءِ وَالْأَرْضِ (p)

Q. 34:9 “Have they [the unbelievers] not regarded what lies before them and what lies behind them of heaven and earth?”

9 وَجَعَلْنَا مِنْ بَيْنِ أَيْدِيهِمْ سَدًّا وَمِنْ خَلْفِهِمْ سَدًّا فَأَغْشَيْنَاهُمْ فَهُمْ لَا يُبْصِرُونَ (p)

Q. 36:9 “and We have put before them [the unbelievers] a barrier and behind them a barrier; and We have covered them, so they do not see;” see Section 4.2 below

10 وَإِذَا قِيلَ لَهُمُ اتَّقُوا مَا بَيْنَ أَيْدِيكُمْ وَمَا خَلْفَكُمْ لَعَلَّكُمْ تُرْحَمُونَ (t)

Q. 36:45 “And when it is said to them, ‚Fear what is before you and what is behind you; haply you will find mercy‘”

11 فَإِنْ أَعْرَضُوا فَقُلْ أَنْذَرْتُكُمْ … إِذْ جَاءَتْهُمُ الرُّسُلُ مِنْ بَيْنِ أَيْدِيهِمْ وَمِنْ خَلْفِهِمْ أَلَا تَعْبُدُوا إِلَّا اللَّهَ (p/t)

Q. 41:14 “But if they turn away, then say, ‚I warn you … When the messengers came unto them from before them and from behind them, saying, ‘Serve none but God’”

12 وَقَيَّضْنَا لَهُمْ قُرُنَاءَ فَزَيَّنُوا لَهُمْ مَا بَيْنَ أَيْدِيهِمْ وَمَا خَلْفَهُمْ (t)

Q. 41:25 “We have allotted them comrades, and they have decked out fair to them that which is before them and behind them”

13 وَاذْكُرْ أَخَا عَادٍ إِذْ أَنْذَرَ قَوْمَهُ بِالْأَحْقَافِ وَقَدْ خَلَتِ النُّذُرُ مِنْ بَيْنِ يَدَيْهِ وَمِنْ خَلْفِهِ أَلَّا تَعْبُدُوا إِلَّا اللَّهَ (t)

Q. 46:21 “And remember the brother of Ad, when he warned his people beside the sand-dunes—and already warners had passed away alike before him and behind him—saying, ‘Serve none but God!’”

14 فَإِنَّهُ يَسْلُكُ مِنْ بَيْنِ يَدَيْهِ وَمِنْ خَلْفِهِ رَصَدًا لِيَعْلَمَ أَنْ قَدْ أَبْلَغُوا رِسَالَاتِ رَبِّهِمْ (p)

Q. 72:27 “then He despatches before him [the messenger] and behind him watchers, that He may know they have delivered the Messages of their Lord”

Qarībun/Baʿīdun "Near/Far"

Merisms in the sense of ‘everywhere, in all parts of the country, of the world’ include the combination of qarībun “near” and baʿīdun “far.”41 The phrase can also be understood temporally, as the Qurʾānic texts show.

1 وَإِنْ أَدْرِي أَقَرِيبٌ أَمْ بَعِيدٌ مَا تُوعَدُونَ

Q. 21:109 “even though I know not whether near nor far is that you are promised”

2 إِنَّهُمْ يَرَوْنَهُ بَعِيدًا وَنَرَاهُ قَرِيبًا

Q. 70:6 “behold, they see it as far off; but We see it is nigh”

In comparison to the first example, only the first element “near” appears in the following text, while the second element shows a variant in terms of content, i.e., it is not formulated with “far:“

قُلْ إِنْ أَدْرِي أَقَرِيبٌ مَا تُوعَدُونَ أَمْ يَجْعَلُ لَهُ رَبِّى أَمَدًا

Q. 72:25 “Say: ‚I do not know whether that which you are promised is nigh, or whether my Lord will appoint for it a space”

4. Embellishment

4.1. Alliteration and Rhyme

Sometimes we do encounter alliteration in word pairs, such as barrun/baḥrun (Section Barrun/Baḥrun “Land/Sea”), laʿibun/lahwun (Section 3.1.1), and mašriqun/maġribun (Section Mašriqun/Maġribun “East/West”), and end rhyme, such as in yusrun/ʿusrun and ʿasīrun/yasīrun—see examples no. 1, 2 in Section 6.3 below (Cf. Pilz (1981), p. 82; Burger (1998), p. 44; Sauer (2024), p. 16, chap. 8.4). Further examples in the Qurʾān are the formulas humazatun lumazatun, meaning “backbiter, slanderer,” and hanīʾan marīʾan, meaning42 “with wholesome appetite” (see introduction).

Alliteration due to identical word roots is found in the most frequently used word pair ar-raḥmānu r-raḥīmu “the Merciful, the Compassionate” as attributes of God; cf. the introduction of Section 2.1.

4.2. Repetition of Parts of Sentences

The mention of subject, object, and verb usually occurs once in connection with word pairs and applies to both elements of the phrase, as these are connected with the conjunction wa-“and.” Probably for rhythmic reasons, in some examples, one part of the sentence is repeated with the second element:

Repetition of the subject:

رَبُّ الْمَشْرِقَيْنِ وَرَبُّ الْمَغْرِبَيْنِ

Q. 55:17 “Lord of the Two Easts, and Lord of the Two Wests;” see Section Mašriqun/Maġribun “East/West” with example no. 6

لَهُ مَا فِي السَّمَاوَاتِ وَمَا فِي الْأَرْضَ وَمَا بَيْنَهُمَا

Q. 20:6 “to Him belongs all that is in the heavens and the earth and all that is between them;” see Section 6.1 below with example no. 7

Repetition of the object:

وَجَعَلْنَا مِنْ بَيْنِ أَيْدِيهِمْ سَدًّا وَمِنْ خَلْفِهِمْ سَدًّا

Q. 36:9 “We have put before them [the unbelievers] a barrier and behind them a barrier;” see Section Bayna Yaday-Hi/Ḫalfa-Hū “Before Someone/Behind or: After Someone” above with example no. 9

Repetition of the verb:

إِنَّهُ يَعْلَمُ الْجَهْرَ مِنَ الْقَوْلِ وَيَعْلَمُ مَا تَكْتُمُونَ

Q. 21:110 “Surely, He knows what is spoken aloud and He knows what you hide;” see Section “Unseen/Visible,” “Inward/Outward,” “Concealing/Revealing” “Concealing/revealing” with example no. 23. The following example no. 24 is expressed in a similar way, but without repeating the verb (Cf. Müller (1993), p. 121)

يُرِيدُ اللهُ بِكُمُ اليُسْرَى وَلَا يُرِيدُ بِكُمُ الْعُسْرَى

Q. 2:185 “God desires ease for you, and desires not hardship for you;” see Section 6.3 no. 1 below.

4.3. Plural and Singular

The phrase “to have neither supporter nor friend,” which occurs several times, is expressed in a more pointed way in one of the example texts. While the first element, šāfiʿūna “intercessors,” appears in the plural, the second element, ṣadīqun “friend,” appears in the singular and is embellished with the adjective ḥamīmun “loyal” in the sense ‘not even a single loyal friend’—see example no. 13 in Section 3.1.4.

5. Amplification: Word Pairs of Same Meaning

Embellishing amplification is found in word pairs with the same or opposite meanings. It reinforces and embellishes the content and slows down the pace of speech by lingering on a statement for longer.

5.1. Triples

Word pairs are expanded with another term of the same meaning to form a triple (See Müller (1993), p. 119).

laʿibun/lahwun/zīnatun “sport, diversion, and adornment”

1 اِعْلَمُوا أَنَّمَا الْحَيَوةُ الدُّنْيَا لَعِبٌ وَلَهْوٌ وَزِينَةٌ وَتَفَاخُرٌ بَيْنَكُمْ وَتَكَاثُرٌ فِي الْأَمْوَالِ وَالْأَوْلَادِ

Q. 57:20 “Know that the present life is but a sport and a diversion, an adornment and a cause for boasting among you, and a rivalry in wealth and children;” cf. the examples for laʿibun/lahwun “sport/diversion” in Section 3.1.1 above.

faḥšāʾu/munkarun/baġyun “indecency/dishonour/insolence”

2 إِنَّ اللَّهَ … وَيَنْهَى عَنِ الْفَحْشَاءِ وَالْمُنْكَرِ وَالْبَغْيِ

Q. 16:90 “[God …] And he forbids indecency, dishonour, and insolence;” cf. the examples for faḥšāʾu/munkarun “indecency/dishonour” in Section 3.1.2 above.

hudan/raḥmatun/bušran “guidance/mercy/good tidings”

3 وَنَزَّلْنَا عَلَيْكَ الْكِتَابَ تِبْيَانًا لِكُلِّ شَيْءٍ وَهُدًى وَرَحْمَةً وَبُشْرَى لِلْمُسْلِمِينَ

Q. 16:89 “And we have sent down on thee the Book making clear everything, and as a guidance and a mercy, and as good tidings to those who surrender;” cf. the examples for hudan/raḥmatun “guidance/mercy” and hudan/bušran “guidance/good tidings” in Section 3.1.3 above.

5.2. Amplification by Enhancement

In the following verse, the human action “revealing” is contrasted with God’s knowledge of what is hidden, what is a secret. The “secret” is supplemented with the enhancing term “more hidden,” in Arabic the elative ʾaḫfā; see example no. 22 in Section “Unseen/Visible,” “Inward/Outward,” “Concealing/Revealing” above.

وَإِنْ تَجْهَرْ بِالْقَوْلِ فَإِنَّهُ يَعْلَمُ السِّرَّ وَأَخْفَى

Q. 20:7 “Be thou loud in thy speech, yet surely He knows the secret and that yet more hidden”

6. Amplification: Word Pairs of Opposite Meanings

6.1. Filling

wa-mā bayna-humā and what is between them

A common embellishment of meristic expressions arises from the fact that both terms are seen as extremes whose ‘space in between’ is to be filled in to create an all-encompassing whole. The complementary phrase is “and what is between.” Examples here include the following:

1 قَالَ رَبُّ الْمَشْرِقِ وَالْمَغْرِبِ وَمَا بَيْنَهُمَا

Q. 26:28 “He said, ‚The Lord of the East and West, and what between them is;” cf. the example in Section Mašriqun/Maġribun “East/West” for mašriqun/maġribun “East/West”

2 وَمَا نَتَنَزَّلُ إِلَّا بِأَمْرِ رَبِّكَ لَهُ مَا بَيْنَ أَيْدِينَا وَمَا خَلْفَنَا وَمَا بَيْنَ ذَلِكَ

Q. 19:64 “We come not down, save at the commandment of thy Lord. To Him belongs all that is before us, and all that is behind us, and all between that;” cf. the example in Section Bayna Yaday-Hi/Ḫalfa-Hū “Before Someone/Behind or: After Someone” for bayna yadai-hi/ḫalfa-hū “before someone/after or behind someone.”

In 20 suras of the Qurʾān, the phrase “heaven and earth” is also expanded with this phrase, i.e., to “heaven and earth and what is between them” or “… and what happens between them.”

3 وَلِلَّهِ مُلْكُ السَّمَاوَاتِ وَالْأَرْضِ وَمَا بَيْنَهُمَا يَخْلُقُ مَا يَشَاءُ

Q. 5:17 “For to God belongs the kingdom of the heavens and of earth, and all that is between them, creating what He will”

4 وَلِلَّهِ مُلْكُ السَّمَاوَاتِ وَالْأَرْضِ وَمَا بَيْنَهُمَا وَإِلَيْهِ الْمَصِيرُ

Q. 5:18 “For to God belongs the kingdom of the heavens and of earth, and all that is between them, to Him is the homecoming”

5 وَمَا خَلَقْنَا السَّمَاوَاتِ وَالْأَرْضَ وَمَا بَيْنَهُمَا إِلَّا بِالْحَقِّ

Q. 15:85 “We created not the heavens and the earth, and all that is between them, save in truth”

6 وَمَا كَانَ رَبُّكَ نَسِيًّا رَبُّ السَّمَاوَاتِ وَالْأَرْضِ وَمَا بَيْنَهُمَا

Q. 19:65 “And thy Lord is never forgetful, Lord He of the heavens and earth and all that is between them”

7 لَهُ مَا فِي السَّمَاوَاتِ وَمَا فِي الْأَرْضِ وَمَا بَيْنَهُمَا وَمَا تَحْتَ الثَّرَى

Q. 20:6 “to Him belongs all that is in the heavens and the earth and all that is between them, and all that is underneath the soil”

8 وَمَا خَلَقْنَا السَّمَاءَ وَالْأَرْضَ وَمَا بَيْنَهُمَا لَاعِبِينَ

Q. 21:16 “We created not the heaven and the earth, and whatsoever between them is, as playing”

9 وَكَفَى بِهِ بِذُنُوبِ عِبَادِهِ خَبِيرًا الَّذِي خَلَقَ السَّمَاوَاتِ وَالْأَرْضَ وَمَا بَيْنَهُمَا فِي سِتَّةِ أَيَّامٍ

Q. 25:59 “Sufficiently is He aware of His servants sins who created the heavens and the earth, and what between them is, in six days”

10 قَالَ رَبُّ السَّمَاوَاتِ وَالْأَرْضِ وَمَا بَيْنَهُمَا إِنْ كُنْتُمْ مُوقِنِينَ

Q. 26:24 “He said, ‚The Lord of the heavens and earth, and what between them is, if you have faith’”

11 مَا خَلَقَ اللَّهُ السَّمَاوَاتِ وَالْأَرْضَ وَمَا بَيْنَهُمَا إِلَّا بِالْحَقِّ وَأَجَلٍ مُسَمًّى

Q. 30:8 “God created not the heavens and the earth, and what between them is, save with the truth and a stated term”

12 اللَّهُ الَّذِي خَلَقَ السَّمَاوَاتِ وَالْأَرْضَ وَمَا بَيْنَهُمَا فِي سِتَّةِ أَيَّامٍ

Q. 32:4 “God is He that created the heavens and the earth, and what between them is, in six days”

13 إِنَّ إِلَاهَكُمْ لَوَاحِدٌ رَبُّ السَّمَاوَاتِ وَالْأَرْضِ وَمَا بَيْنَهُمَا وَرَبُّ الْمَشَارِقِ

Q. 37:5 “surely your God is One, (5) Lord of the heavens and the earth, and what between them is Lord of the Easts”

14 أَمْ لَهُمْ مُلْكُ السَّمَاوَاتِ وَالْأَرْضِ وَمَا بَيْنَهُمَا

Q. 38:10 “Or is theirs the kingdom of the heavens and earth and of what between them is?”

15 وَمَا خَلَقْنَا السَّمَاءَ وَالْأَرْضَ وَمَا بَيْنَهُمَا بَاطِلًا ذَلِكَ

Q. 38:27 “We have not created the heavens and earth, and what between them is, for vanity”

16 وَمَا مِنْ إِلَاهٍ إِلَّا اللَّهُ الْوَاحِدُ الْقَهَّارُ رَبُّ السَّمَاوَاتِ وَالْأَرْضِ وَمَا بَيْنَهُمَا الْعَزِيزُ الْغَفَّارُ

Q. 38:66 “There is not any god but God, the One, the Omnipotent, Lord of the heavens and earth, and what between them is, the All-mighty, the All-forgiving”

17 وَتَبَارَكَ الَّذِي لَهُ مُلْكُ السَّمَاوَاتِ وَالْأَرْضِ وَمَا بَيْنَهُمَا

Q. 43:85 “Glory be to Him, to whom belongs the Kingdom of the heavens and the earth and all that between them is”

18 إِنَّا كُنَّا مُرْسِلِينَ … رَبِّ السَّمَاوَاتِ وَالْأَرْضِ وَمَا بَيْنَهُمَا إِنْ كُنْتُمْ مُوقِنِينَ

Q. 44:7 “We are ever sending (5) as a mercy from thy Lord … Lord of the heavens and earth, and all that between them is if you have faith”

19 وَمَا خَلَقْنَا السَّمَاوَاتِ وَالْأَرْضَ وَمَا بَيْنَهُمَا لَاعِبِينَ

Q. 44:38 “We created not the heavens and earth, and all that is between them, in play”

20 مَا خَلَقْنَا السَّمَاوَاتِ وَالْأَرْضَ وَمَا بَيْنَهُمَا إِلَّا بِالْحَقِّ وَأَجَلٍ مُسَمًّى

Q. 46:3 “We have not created the heavens and the earth, and what between them is, save with the truth and a stated term”

21 وَلَقَدْ خَلَقْنَا السَّمَاوَاتِ وَالْأَرْضَ وَمَا بَيْنَهُمَا فِي سِتَّةِ أَيَّامٍ

Q. 50:38 “We created the heavens and the earth, and what between them is, in six days”

22 لَا يَسْمَعُونَ فِيهَا لَغْوًا وَلَا كِذَّبًا جَزَاءًا مِنْ رَبِّكَ … رَبِّ السَّمَاوَاتِ وَالْأَرْضِ وَمَا بَيْنَهُمَا الرَّحْمَانِ

Q. 78:37 “Lord of the heavens and earth, and all that between them is, the All-merciful”

6.2. Two Pairs

Striking rhetorical phenomena arise when two linked word pairs, each a verb with an object or adverbial complement, are used. Only a few examples are given here to draw attention to this phenomenon, as it is peripheral to the topic chosen here and requires detailed investigation with further references.

ḍaḥika qalīlan/bakā kaṯīran “to laugh little/to weep much” (no. 1)

kariha ḫayran/ḥabba šarran “to hate something better/to love something worse” (no. 2)

In Q. 53:43 it is said that God makes people laugh and cry; see Section Ḍaḥika/Bakā “To Laugh/to Weep” above. By adding the likewise meristic word pair “little/much,” the entire meristic statement is not strengthened but—on the contrary—dissolved, since here positive “laugh” is brought together with negative “little,” and negative “cry” with positive “much,” whereby an overall negative statement is created. In another context, however, people may have a lot to laugh about and little to cry about, which would result in an overall positive statement. Example no. 2 functions in a similar way to example no. 1. Here, negative “hate” is combined with positive “better,” and positive “love” with negative “worse.”

1 فَلْيَضْحَكُوا قَلِيلًا وَلْيَبْكُوا كَثِيرًا

Q. 9:82 “Therefore let them laugh little, and weep much”

2 وَعَسَى أَنْ تَكْرَهُوا شَيْئًا وَهُوَ خَيْرٌ لَكُمْ وَعَسَى أَنْ تُحِبُّوا شَيْئًا وَهُوَ شَرٌّ لَكُمْ

Q. 2:216 “Yet it may happen that you will hate a thing which is better for you; and it may happen that you will love a thing which is worse for you;” see Ullmann (1984), no. 53.

amara bi-l-maʿrūfi/nahā ʿani l-munkari “to order what is right/to deny what is bad”

Unlike the previous cases, here a positive statement in the form of a verb plus an object is combined with a negative statement, also in the form of a verb plus an object. Both statements complement each other and completely cover the intended content.

1 تَأْمُرُونَ بِالْمَعْرُوفِ وَتَنْهَوْنَ عَنِ الْمُنْكَرِ

Q. 3:110 “You are the best nation ever brought forth to men, bidding to honour and forbidding dishonour, and believing in God”

2 وَيَأْمُرُونَ بِالْمَعْرُوفِ وَيَنْهَوْنَ عَنِ الْمُنْكَرِ

Q. 3:114 “some of the People of the Book … believing in God and in the Last Day, bidding to honour and forbidding dishonour”

3 الْآمِرُونَ بِالْمَعْرُوفِ وَالنَّاهُونَ عَنِ الْمُنْكَرِ

Q. 9:112 “[the believers] those who bid to honour and forbid dishonour”

The phrase is connected with a second word pair in:

4 [الرَّسُول] يَاْمُرُهُمْ بِالْمَعْرُوفِ وَيَنْهَاهُمْ عَنِ الْمُنْكَرِ وَيُحِلُّ لَهُمُ الطَّيَّبَاتِ وَيُحَرِّمُ عَلَيْهِمُ الْخَبَائِثَ

Q. 7:157 “[the Messenger] bidding them to honour, and forbidding them dishonour, making lawful for them the good things and making unlawful for them the corrupt things”

6.3. Pairs of Positivum and Negativum

If the first element of an opposing word pair is positive, but the second, opposing element is negated, the first element is strongly emphasised. Some examples with nominal and verbal word pairs are as follows:

ḍarra/mā nafaʿa “to hurt/not to profit”

وَيَتَعَلَّمُونَ مَا يَضُرُّهُمْ وَلَا يَنْفَعُهُمْ

Q. 2:102 “And they learned what hurt them, and did not profit them;” see this example in Section Ḍarrun/Nafʿun “Harm/Benefit” (no. 10) above.

yusrun/lā ʿusrun “ease/not hardship”

1 يُرِيدُ اللَّهُ بِكُمُ الْيُسْرَ وَلَا يُرِيدُ بِكُمُ الْعُسْرَ

Q. 2:185 “God desires ease for you, and desires not hardship for you”43

ʿasīrun/ġayru yasīrin “harsh/not easy”

2 فَإِذَا نُقِرَ فِي النَّاقُورِ فَذَلِكَ يَوْمَئِذٍ يَوْمٌ عَسِيرٌ عَلَى الْكَافِرِينَ غَيْرُ يَسِيرٍ

Q. 74:9 “For when the Trump is sounded that day will be a harsh day, (10) for the unbelievers not easy”44

mayyitun/ġayru ḥayyin “dead/not alive”

3 وَالَّذِينَ يَدْعُونَ مِنْ دُونِ اللَّهِ لَا يَخْلُقُونَ شَيْئًا وَهُمْ يُخْلَقُونَ أَمْوَاتٌ غَيْرُ أَحْيَاءٍ

Q.16:21 “And those they [the unbelievers] call upon, apart from God, created nothing, and themselves are created, dead, not alive”

ḍaḥika/mā bakā “to laugh/not to weep”

4 أَفَمِنْ هَذَا الْحَدِيثِ تَعْجَبُونَ وَتَضْحَكُونَ وَلَا تَبْكُونَ

Q. 53:60 “Do you then marvel at this discourse [a warner] (60) and do you laugh, and do you not weep;” cf. Section Ḍaḥika/Bakā “To Laugh/to Weep” (no. 3) “to laugh/to weep”

šakara/mā kafara “to be thankful/not to be ungrateful”

5 فَاذْكُرُونِي أَذْكُرْكُمْ وَاشْكُرُوا لِي وَلَا تَكْفُرُونِ

Q. 2:152 “So remember Me, and I will remember you; and be thankful to Me; and be you not ungrateful towards Me;” see Ullmann (1970–2009) I 261 b 12 (kfr)

qarra ʿaynu-hū/mā ḥazina “to rejoice/not to be sad”

6 فَرَجَعْنَاكَ إِلَى أُمِّكَ كَىْ تَقَرَّ عَيْنُهَا وَلَا تَحْزَنَ

Q. 20:40 “So We returned thee [Moses] to thy mother that she might rejoice, and not sorrow”

7 فَرَدَدْنَاهُ إِلَى أُمِّهِ كَىْ تَقَرَّ عَيْنُهَا وَلَا تَحْزَنَ

Q. 28:13 “So We returned him [MThisoses] to his mother, that she might be comforted and not sorrow”

8 ذَلِكَ أَدْنَى أَنْ تَقَرَّ أَعْيُنُهُنَّ وَلَا يَحْزَنَّ

Q. 33:51 “So it is likelier they [the women] will be comforted, and not sorrow”

aḍalla/mā hadā “to lead someone astray/not to lead on the right path”

9 وَأَضَلَّ فِرْعَوْنُ قَوْمَهُ وَمَا هَدَى

Q. 20:79 “so pharao had led his people astray, and was no guide to them”

7. Conclusions

As already mentioned at the beginning, this study of word pairs can only shed light on the strongly rhetorically determined language of the Qurʾān. Close word pairs, in this case linked by the conjunction wa- “and” or aw “or,” are part of the rhetorical device used in positive or negative statements of the text. Only future research will reveal whether the various examples are individual or common in other texts, or perhaps even phraseological combinations.

The aim here was not to explain what a single word means, as explained and discussed in linguistics, theology, and philosophy, but rather to show which two words appear closely together and in what context they appear. In the case of synonymous pairs, it was shown that the element of one pair can also be formulated as a single word elsewhere without any loss of meaning. In the case of antonym pairs, it is interesting to see which semantic field a pair is taken from in order to express something general or comprehensive. It is interesting to see the means by which word pairs can be expanded and embellished, how the words in a pair can be separated from each other and expanded into complex statements with similar sentence elements—a phenomenon that has already attracted the interest of linguists and literary theorists.