A Religious–Psychological Study of Anthony de Mello’s Sadhana Practice

Abstract

This study aims to examine Anthony de Mello’s Sadhana practice from a religious–psychological perspective, applying Carl Gustav Jung’s analytical psychology and views on the Spiritual Exercises. The analysis reveals that Sadhana, which integrates psychotherapeutic methods such as Gestalt therapy and the methodology of Vipassana meditation, holds significant implications. First, based on Jung’s theory, Sadhana pursues wholeness through the union of opposites, such as extraversion and introversion. Jung posited that opposing elements coexist within the human psyche, and their harmonization is central to individuation. Thus, practices that integrate these opposites are meaningful attempts to foster inner growth and maturity. Second, by incorporating Gestalt therapy into the Spiritual Exercises, Sadhana enhances awareness and employs methods to address contact boundary disturbances, enabling self-reflection and restoration of one’s relationship with God. Anthony de Mello’s Sadhana practice is evaluated as a novel case that presents new possibilities for contemporary Christian spirituality.

1. Introduction

This study explores the Sadhana practice, a novel form of the Ignatian Spiritual Exercises developed by Anthony de Mello (1931–1987), an Indian Jesuit priest renowned as a spiritual director and psychotherapist, from a religious–psychological perspective. Despite the significant academic value of research on Father Anthony de Mello (hereafter De Mello), studies across all disciplines remain extremely limited. In particular, while the Sadhana practice he developed holds high scholarly potential, the absence of any research on this topic underscores the urgent need for academic inquiry.

Considering that De Mello’s numerous works have been translated into approximately 50 languages worldwide and that he achieved considerable fame and influence both within and beyond the Catholic Church during his lifetime, the lack of academic studies on his contributions is regrettable. Therefore, this study seeks to illuminate the academic value of De Mello’s achievements by exploring the Sadhana practice from a religious–psychological perspective, thereby aiming to stimulate scholarly interest.

Regarding prior research on De Mello, while articles in magazines and newspapers addressing the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith’s notification issued after his death and the ensuing debates within the Catholic Church are readily available, academic studies on him remain scarce. Specifically, as far as we know, only two articles have been identified in international journals: Thomas (1999) and Fárek (2022), and a single monograph has been published (Nayak 2007). However, no research has been published on the Sadhana practice.

In this context, this study focuses on the religious–psychological implications of the Sadhana practice developed by De Mello. During his lifetime, De Mello gained renown as a spiritual director guiding the Spiritual Exercises, during which he transformed the traditional form of these exercises in his unique way. This led to the creation of a new form of the Spiritual Exercises named “Sadhana,” which holds significant religious–psychological importance.

The core of the Sadhana practice lies in two key aspects: first, the introduction of psychological methods such as Gestalt therapy into the process of the Spiritual Exercises; and second, the creation and application of a new form of practice that integrates Christian prayers, such as meditative and contemplative prayer, with the Vipassana (vipassanā) meditation method from Theravada Buddhism. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to analyze the meaning and value of De Mello’s innovative approach from a religious–psychological perspective.

The scope of the study begins with a review of the Sadhana practice. Given that extensive research on the Spiritual Exercises has already been accumulated by numerous scholars over a long period, this paper will focus on explaining the additional elements that Sadhana incorporates into the Spiritual Exercises. Next, the religious–psychological significance and value of the Sadhana practice will be analyzed. To explore the religious–psychological implications of the Sadhana practice, this study will employ an analytical framework based on the psychological theory of Carl Gustav Jung (1875–1961). This approach is chosen because Jung highly valued the Spiritual Exercises and conducted in-depth research on them during his lifetime, while also respecting the value of Eastern religious traditions and possessing extensive knowledge in this area. Moreover, concepts such as introversion and extraversion, the union of opposites, and individuation, as defined in his analytical psychology, provide an appropriate theoretical framework for elucidating the significance of the Sadhana practice. This paper examines De Mello’s Sadhana practice through the lens of Jung’s analytical psychology and explores the application of Gestalt therapy within this practice. Accordingly, it is intended for an academic and professional audience, such as religious psychologists and spiritual directors, rather than novice practitioners.

2. Sadhana Practice

De Mello emphasized the close connection between human spirituality and psychology. As a spiritual director, he gained renown for guiding the Spiritual Exercises, during which he introduced psychological methods, such as Gestalt therapy, to create the Sadhana practice. The term “Sadhana,” derived from Sanskrit, means “effort toward a goal” and is commonly translated as “practice” in East Asian contexts. In Hinduism and Buddhism, it denotes efforts to achieve spiritual objectives. De Mello’s adoption of this term reflects the practice’s roots in India’s Hindu-Buddhist worldview (Nayak 2007).

However, he came to us at De Nobili, not so much to convince us of his missionary life, but as to satisfy our thirst for psychology applied to spiritual life. All of us had plans then to become spiritual psychologists. Contact with him began with an annual retreat of eight days. … There was also a lot of applied psychology. He had begun to seriously apply Transactional Analysis and Gestalt to the problems of spiritual life. … The first sadhana group was being birthed there.

(Nayak 2007, p. 24)

The above quotation is excerpted from a book by Anand Nayak, a disciple of De Mello and a Jesuit, describing De Mello’s life and spirituality. As detailed here, De Mello’s innovative attempt to apply psychological theories to spiritual guidance was warmly received by Indian Jesuits at the time, ultimately leading to the establishment of the Sadhana program. According to Nayak (2007), initially an eight-day retreat, its duration and popularity grew, expanding to Singapore, Malaysia, and Japan (see p. 26).

A. De Mello (1984) argued that negative emotions within the human psyche adversely affect not only the body and emotions but also spirituality (see p. 75). This emphasizes that psychological issues and spiritual growth are not separate domains but are inseparably interconnected. He viewed psychological barriers—unresolved trauma, negative self-beliefs, or emotional wounds—as obstacles to spiritual growth. For instance, individuals struggling with deep-seated fear or anxiety may find it difficult to open their hearts to spiritual experiences and feel inner peace or transcendence. This suggests that unresolved psychological issues can hinder full participation in spiritual experiences.

The Sadhana practice integrates Gestalt therapy and Vipassana meditation with the Spiritual Exercises, encompassing traditional Christian prayer methods, such as meditative and contemplative prayer, which form the foundation of the Spiritual Exercises, alongside an emphasis on “awareness” and “breathing” derived from Gestalt therapy and Vipassana meditation:

Become aware of your breathing for a while… Reflect on his presence in the air you are breathing… Be conscious of his presence in the air as you breathe in and out… Notice what you feel when you become conscious of his presence in the air you are breathing in and out… I want you to express various sentiments to God not through words but through your breathing.

(A. De Mello 1984, p. 38)

As evident in the above quotation, the role of breathing in Gestalt therapy, which serves as a means to facilitate the client’s awareness of their inner self, transforms into a new dimension in the Sadhana practice. In Sadhana, breathing becomes a means to experience the presence of God. Consequently, Christian traditional prayer methods like meditative and contemplative prayer, along with awareness and breathing, can be described as the three central pillars of the Sadhana practice.

In the Sadhana practice, De Mello favored group therapy as a psychological approach. Group therapy provides an environment where clients can share their difficulties, insights, and spiritual experiences with others. Furthermore, clients realize they are not alone in facing their challenges and discover that others understand and relate to their experiences, which can facilitate healing through shared experiences. The dynamics within the group foster a sense of solidarity and belonging, enabling participants to support each other on their life journeys. This mutual understanding can reduce feelings of isolation in clients’ spiritual and psychological challenges.

During the early stages of the Sadhana practice’s launch, participants were hesitant to share personal issues openly in a group setting. To address this reluctance, De Mello employed role-playing, acting as a client to model openness. This approach helped participants, unfamiliar with group therapy, gradually become more comfortable, enabling them to engage more fully in the group therapy process over time (Nayak 2007).

Both group therapy and role-playing are techniques frequently utilized in Gestalt therapy, and they are also effectively employed in Transactional Analysis (TA) theory. As noted in Nayak’s previously cited work, Gestalt therapy and Transactional Analysis were applied in the initial Sadhana course (see Nayak 2007, p. 24). Based on this, it can be inferred that De Mello’s extensive use of group therapy and role-playing was influenced not only by Gestalt therapy but also by his knowledge and understanding of Transactional Analysis.

Transactional Analysis, developed by Eric Berne (1910–1970), is a psychotherapeutic framework that examines personality structure and interpersonal interactions, actively incorporating group therapy and role-playing as core therapeutic techniques (Berne [1961] 2015, pp. 165–89). The primary examples of psychotherapeutic methods applied by De Mello in Spiritual Exercises are Gestalt therapy and Transactional Analysis theory. This paper primarily analyzes the relationship between Gestalt therapy and Sadhana. However, Transactional Analysis also significantly influenced the formation of Sadhana, and further research on this topic is deemed necessary in the future.

De Mello’s innovative approach of incorporating psychological methods into the process of the Spiritual Exercises bore fruit with the publication of his seminal work, Sadhana: A Way to God (1984). Initially, De Mello had no intention of publishing this book. Although he had prepared manuscripts for conducting the Sadhana process, the live sessions often gave rise to situations and teachings that could not be fully captured in those texts, leading him to believe that a single book could not encompass the entirety of the phenomenon. However, a close nun friend earnestly urged him to publish it for the benefit of readers worldwide, and De Mello acquiesced, resulting in the book’s emergence (Nayak 2007). This led to the creation of a classic in the field of spirituality, now translated into over 50 languages worldwide.

According to (B. De Mello 2013), the responses and reflections of the participants in the Sadhana course were predominantly positive. Of particular note is the testimony of a Jesuit who, although he initially expressed partial disagreement with De Mello’s views, later provided the following account of the impact he experienced throughout the course of the Sadhana practice (see p. 176).

What I got from Sadhana and then later with Fr. Rebello influenced my ministry and way of being; it is something I carried for the rest of my life.

(ibid.)

The distinctive feature of the Sadhana practice is not limited to its integration of psychological methods into the Spiritual Exercises. As previously mentioned, another noteworthy characteristic is the incorporation of the methodology of Vipassana meditation, a prominent Buddhist practice. De Mello particularly emphasized the importance of breathing and awareness in the Sadhana practice, which are foundational elements of Vipassana meditation.

De Mello’s interest in Vipassana arose from its similarities with Gestalt therapy, in which he was deeply engaged. As will be discussed later, while Gestalt therapy centers on awareness and contact and Vipassana meditation focuses on awareness and breathing, despite differing goals, there is considerable methodological similarity between the two. In fact, De Mello invited S. N. Goenka (1924–2013), a world-renowned Vipassana teacher, to guide him and other Catholic priests in Vipassana practice (B. De Mello 2013). By learning and incorporating Vipassana’s methodology, the Sadhana practice gained a richer foundation.

3. Jung’s Analytical Psychology: Union of Opposites and Individuation

Jung analyzed that all physical phenomena derive their energy from the tension between elements forming opposites, and human life is no exception to this principle, asserting that the energy of life manifests from the tension between opposing elements such as femininity and masculinity, or introversion and extraversion (Jung 1972). Jung (1959) further stated that these opposing elements tend toward integration, conceptualizing this process as the “union of opposites.” (p. 475).

Additionally, Jung expressed significant interest in the differences that emerge within the various elements constructed through the historical formation of society and culture. He particularly noted that, in terms of worldview or ideology, East and West exhibit stark differences, forming opposites. For instance, the West is characterized by extraversion, while the East is marked by introversion, with the key factor being whether the focus is more on a deity external to humans or on the inner human psyche (Jung [1958] 1969).

It is well-known that Jung analyzed the coexistence of opposing elements within the human psyche, such as reason and emotion, conscious and unconscious, ego and shadow, persona and anima/animus. He believed that humans have a tendency to live as whole beings by integrating these internal opposites, meaning that conflicting elements merge to give rise to a new, integrated existence on a higher level.

However, Jung also pointed out the paradoxical nature of the union of opposites, as the process of integration leads to the dissolution of individual elements, yet the pursuit of this union persists despite their dissolution, which he deemed paradoxical from a logical perspective (Jung 1959). Nevertheless, the union of opposites occupies a central place in Jungian psychology and, alongside the “individuation process” he proposed, represents an essential stage for humans to progress toward the “Self,” a complete inner being. Jung (1972) defined individuation as follows: Individuation means becoming an “in-dividual,” and, insofar as “individuality” embraces our innermost, last, and incomparable uniqueness, it also implies becoming one’s own self. We could therefore translate individuation as “coming to selfhood” or “self-realization” (p. 238).

As Jung explained above, individuation refers to an individual becoming their unique inner self, also expressed as “self-formation” or “self-realization,” achieved by bringing the unconscious into consciousness. Since the limits of the unconscious cannot be fully grasped, it is impossible to make the entire unconscious conscious. Therefore, individuation is better understood as a process of moving toward wholeness rather than the complete realization of the entire personality. As is well known, Jung asserted that humans possess individual uniqueness that distinguishes them from others while also carrying the collective unconscious, a universal mental element shared by all humanity. Thus, the individuation process can be described as a significant psychological journey that enables individuals to maintain their originality while forming mature relationships with others.

An individuated person, like the totality of the psyche, is both different from and similar to others, and similar yet different. This is because all humans possess individual characteristics as well as the collective unconscious and a universal human foundation. The “Self” is the future personality that embodies such individuality. Bringing this individuality to life is what constitutes individuation, or self-realization.

(Lee 2002, p. 92)

As explained by Lee in the above quotation, individuation involves realizing one’s unique individuality upon the universal foundation of the collective unconscious. In essence, it is the process of bringing the contents of the unconscious to the level of consciousness to manifest individual characteristics. Thus, individuation signifies the process by which a person, while rooted in the collective unconscious, develops into a distinct being differentiated from it.

At this point, it is necessary to further discuss the concept of the “Self,” which consistently appears in Jung’s emphasis on the individuation process, in comparison with the “ego.” This is because union with Christ is central to the Spiritual Exercises, and Jung interprets the “Self” in relation to Christ. According to Jung (1959), the “ego” is the center of the conscious realm and the subject of all human actions, whereas the “Self” represents the “total personality,” which exists but cannot be fully known (pp. 3–5). Jung (1968) asserts that the core function of this total personality lies in its connection with the divine and describes it as follows:

but at all events the soul must contain in itself the faculty of relationship to God, i.e., a correspondence, otherwise a connection could never come about. This correspondence is, in psychological terms, the archetype of the God-image. … For this reason I have found myself obliged to give the corresponding archetype the psychological name of the “self”—a term on the one hand definite enough to convey the essence of human wholeness and on the other hand indefinite enough to express the indescribable and indeterminable nature of this wholeness. … Hence in its scientific usage the term “self” refers neither to Christ nor to the Buddha but to the totality of the figures that are its equivalent, and each of these figures is a symbol of the self.

(pp. 13–20)

As Jung describes above, the core function of the “Self,” as the concept of the “total personality” within the human psyche, is its ability to interact with the divine. He also states that the Self refers to the totality of figures such as Christ or Buddha, or their equivalents, with each of these figures being a symbol of the Self. When limiting the discussion to Christianity, therefore, the Self is a symbol of Christ. By understanding the Self in relation to Christ, Jung elevates its significance within Christian spirituality.

4. Gestalt Therapy

4.1. Basic Principles of Gestalt Therapy

Gestalt therapy, developed by the German psychiatrist and psychologist Fritz Perls (1893–1970), is a psychotherapeutic approach that emphasizes awareness of current emotions, physical states, and the environment, as well as experiences in the “here and now,” adopting a phenomenological and existential perspective. Grounded in the theoretical framework of Gestalt psychology, Gestalt therapy incorporates several concepts and principles from it. Gestalt psychology, represented by the proposition that “the whole is greater than the sum of its parts,” is based on the characteristic of human perception to recognize wholes rather than parts, as implied by the German word “Gestalt,” meaning “shape,” “form,” or “whole.”

According to Mann, humans have a tendency to perceive specific external stimuli by organizing them into meaningful wholes or forms based on principles of closure, proximity, similarity, continuity, and symmetry. In this process, individuals organize their environment into meaningful forms, or Gestalts, from their subjective perspective, which serves as the core foundation of Gestalt therapy (Mann 2010). Humans should naturally form or resolve Gestalts in response to external stimuli, but when factors disrupt this process, psychopathological phenomena arise.

4.2. Figure and Ground, and Unfinished Business

Gestalt therapy theory explains the process of Gestalt formation through the relationship between figure and ground. The figure refers to the experiential element that emerges as the primary focus of attention at a given moment, representing an individual’s dominant need or interest. It is the clear and prominent aspect of perception or cognition, formed as the organism organizes experiences based on perspective or focus. In contrast, the ground is the part that lies outside of awareness or interest, serving as the background or context in which the figure emerges, composed of elements such as past experiences, physiological states, beliefs, and environmental factors. According to Polster and Polster, the relationship between figure and ground is dynamic, with the figure emerging from the ground and receding back into it as needs change (Polster and Polster 1973). For example, when hungry, the need for food becomes the figure, while other concerns fade into the ground. (Perls et al. [1951] 1994) state that the concept of figure and ground was also adopted by Perls from Gestalt psychology to explain how individuals organize their perceptions and experiences in the present moment (p. xxvi). A healthy organism forms distinct figures and flexibly shifts to other figures in response to environmental changes, but when this does not occur, the cause is often unfinished business.

According to Perls, a Gestalt, or figure, formed due to a specific need naturally transitions to another Gestalt once that need is fulfilled, with the previous Gestalt receding into the background in a fluid process. This natural alternation of figure and ground occurs through a cyclical process of Gestalt formation and resolution, where in a healthy organism, a need emerges as the figure, is completed, and then recedes into the ground (Perls 1973). Mann (2010) states that in a healthy organism, this process proceeds smoothly, but when the organism fails to properly form or resolve a Gestalt, an incomplete Gestalt, or “unfinished business,” arises (pp. 57–59).

According to Mann, unfinished business does not recede into the background but lingers in an intermediate layer, obstructing the formation of new Gestalts. It is pushed out of consciousness but does not disappear, continually demanding resolution from the unconscious and hindering focus on the present. As unfinished business accumulates, it leads to repeated failures in fulfilling needs, ultimately causing psychological and physical disorders. Therefore, resolving unfinished business is essential for maintaining mental and physical health (Mann 2010). When unfinished business piles up, the alternation of figure and ground becomes impaired, causing disturbances at the contact boundary and leading to psychological issues. Thus, resolving unfinished business to facilitate the smooth cycling of Gestalts is crucial.

4.3. Contact Boundary Disturbances

According to Perls et al., in Gestalt therapy the point where the individual meets the environment is called the “contact boundary,” and it is assumed that human experience and growth occur at this juncture. Healthy functioning is achieved through fluid and conscious contact at this boundary, with needs being met through creative adjustment. However, problems can arise at this contact boundary, leading to instances where appropriate interaction and self-regulation are impaired, which is referred to as “contact boundary disturbance.” (Perls et al. [1951] 1994).

As mentioned above, when factors disrupt the natural process of forming or resolving a Gestalt—that is, the alternation of figure and ground—psychopathological phenomena arise, which are referred to as “contact boundary disturbances.” Early Gestalt therapy practitioners, such as Perls and Paul Goodman, described these disturbances at the contact boundary as “resistance,” but later, various terms with similar meanings have been used (Mann 2010). As such, contact boundary disturbances are psychopathological phenomena that hinder the natural process of Gestalt formation and resolution, and they are generally classified into the following five types. These include introjection (uncritical adoption of external values), projection (attributing internal feelings to others), retroflection (redirecting impulses inward), deflection (avoiding direct engagement), and confluence (blurring self-other boundaries).

Introjection refers to the process by which an individual incorporates external values, standards, or beliefs into their personality without critical examination, as if they were their own. This process, bypassing assimilation, leads to a lack of genuine self-awareness and can result in potential conflicts between the introjected content and the individual’s true needs or desires (Perls et al. [1951] 1994). When external factors, such as parental influences or societal norms, are not integrated into an individual’s self but instead remain within as if forcibly swallowed, they create a coerced character, thereby hindering genuine personal growth and maturity.

Projection involves an individual attributing their unacceptable or unrecognized thoughts, feelings, or impulses to another person or external object, thereby denying them. This is a type of defense mechanism that allows the individual to avoid confronting aspects of themselves by perceiving them as originating externally (ibid.). Projection is often described as the process by which an individual externalizes internal conflicts, such as anxiety or anger. This disrupts contact between the self and the environment, leading to the error of attributing the cause of one’s inner experiences to external factors.

Retroflection refers to the act of an individual turning inward what they wish to do to the environment or receive from it. This involves redirecting impulses or desires inward rather than expressing them outwardly, which can lead to self-directed behaviors such as self-criticism or self-harm (ibid.). Retroflection is generally described as the process of turning energy intended for external interaction inward—for example, when an individual suppresses anger toward others and instead feels guilt or punishes themselves. This can cause a fragmentation of personality, obstructing healthy contact with others.

Deflection refers to the act of an individual avoiding direct connection with others or the environment to reduce the intensity of contact, which includes evading or ignoring genuine engagement to mitigate discomfort or perceived threats (Polster and Polster 1973). While deflection can sometimes serve a protective function by alleviating conflict, when it becomes habitual, it may prevent meaningful engagement, thereby hindering the accumulation of authentic life experiences.

Confluence describes a state where the boundary between the individual and the environment becomes blurred or disappears, resulting in a lack of differentiation between the two. In this state, individuals struggle to distinguish their own emotions, needs, or identity from those of others or the external world (Perls et al. [1951] 1994). Confluence is characterized as a loss of the contact boundary, such as when an individual becomes overly dependent on others or merges with the surrounding environment through phenomena like groupthink. This suppresses self-awareness, the assertion of individuality, and the ability to make genuine choices.

5. Analysis of Sadhana Practice Through Psychological Theories

5.1. Significance of Sadhana from Jung’s Analytical Psychology Perspective

Jung highly valued the Spiritual Exercises of Ignatius during his lifetime and provided a detailed analysis and evaluation based on his analytical psychology perspective in a lecture series hosted by the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich (Jung 2023). In this context, Jung deeply explored the value of the Spiritual Exercises as a representative Western tool for psychological transformation by comparing them with Buddhist and Hindu practices. What, then, can be said about the value and significance of De Mello’s Sadhana practice, which integrated the Spiritual Exercises, psychological therapy, and Buddhist practices, from the perspective of Jung’s analytical psychology?

According to Jung, the meditation practiced by Ignatius in the Spiritual Exercises is oriented toward a relationship with a transcendent absolute, embodying the characteristic extraversion of Western religion. This can be evaluated as a form of prayer with a petitionary nature, distinctly different from Eastern meditation. However, Vipassana practice exhibits different characteristics. Rather than aiming for a relationship with an external transcendent absolute, it emphasizes inner cultivation and mental awakening, contrasting with the extraverted nature of the Western Spiritual Exercises (Jung 2023). Psychological therapies, similarly, focus on investigating and analyzing the inner world of the human psyche, as their goal is to address mental issues and pursue psychological stability.

At this point, the following argument may arise. According to Kim (2010), the purpose of the Spiritual Exercises is not solely oriented toward a relationship with a transcendent absolute. The goal of prayer to God in the process of the Spiritual Exercises is to achieve inner unity with God. Although God is an external entity, the aim of the Spiritual Exercises is to recognize the Christ present within the practitioner, which can be seen as an introverted outcome. In other words, it is argued that this is “an introverted outcome achieved through an extraverted framework, and this is precisely what introversion entails” (pp. 48–49).

This opinion has aspects that can be fully understood or appreciated. The reason is that Jung’s high regard for the Spiritual Exercises as a tool for psychological transformation implies his acknowledgment that they pursue inner change. However, when compared to Vipassana practice or psychological therapies, the Spiritual Exercises are relatively more focused on the relationship with a transcendent absolute, which, based on Jung’s theory, can be logically regarded as a characteristic of extraversion.

Meanwhile, Jung, who characterized the Spiritual Exercises as extraverted, analyzed Eastern meditation practices, such as those in Buddhism, as introverted. This is because such practices involve exploring the depths of the human psyche, focusing solely on the practitioner without reference to an external divine entity (Jung 2023). From this perspective, De Mello’s attempt to combine the introverted nature of Vipassana practice with the extraverted nature of the Spiritual Exercises holds significant meaning in Jungian psychology. This is because, through the Sadhana practice, De Mello integrates the extraversion of traditional Spiritual Exercises with the introversion of Buddhist practices, pursuing the “union of opposites,” a process that aims for “wholeness.”

As previously mentioned, the union of opposites is a crucial concept in Jung’s analytical psychology for achieving psychological completion and self-realization. He believed that opposing elements coexist within the human psyche and that harmonizing these elements is central to the individuation process. Based on Jung’s logic, if the harmonization of opposing elements within the psyche is significant, then methods that integrate these opposing elements in practices aimed at fostering inner growth and maturity can also be considered meaningful attempts in the pursuit of wholeness.

5.2. Integration of the Spiritual Exercises, Gestalt Therapy, and Vipassana and Its Significance

Fritz Perls, the founder of Gestalt therapy, emphasized the therapeutic power of awareness, which forms the core of this approach, with contact as another essential element. Gestalt therapy views all psychological disorders as ultimately stemming from a lack of awareness and contact, asserting that mental health can be restored by recovering these two aspects.

The purpose of the Spiritual Exercises is to form a close relationship with the transcendent absolute, God, and to achieve spiritual maturity through self-reflection. As a spiritual director and psychotherapist well-versed in various psychotherapeutic methods, De Mello’s integration of Gestalt therapy into the guidance of the Spiritual Exercises is reasonably expected to yield beneficial effects. This is because incorporating Gestalt therapy into the Spiritual Exercises promotes awareness, which can facilitate self-reflection and the formation of a relationship with God.

De Mello devised strategies in the Sadhana practice to address the processes of contact boundary disturbances raised in Gestalt therapy, thereby eliminating factors that could hinder spiritual growth. For instance, through the exercises of “the Sorrowful Mysteries” and “Release from Resentment” in Sadhana, participants are guided to confront painful past memories and free themselves from their influence (A. De Mello 1984):

Return to some scene in the past where you have felt pain or grief or hurt or fear or bitterness… But this time seek and find the presence of the Lord in it… In what way is he present there?

(A. De Mello 1984, p. 74)

Finally, to strengthen your decision to give up your resentment (that is the secret: do you really want to give up and get on with life or with the relationship, or are you one of those who hug the resentment to themselves and complain that they cannot get rid of it?), do the following: Imagine you see Jesus on the Cross… Take all the time you need to picture him in vivid detail… Keep alternating between the event that caused your resentment and the scene of Jesus on the Cross… until you notice the resentment slipping away from you and feel freedom and joy and lightheartedness that follow.

(ibid., pp. 77–78)

This is particularly closely related to the process known as retroflection, as unexpressed and suppressed anger becomes unfinished business within the individual, obstructing the smooth formation and resolution of Gestalts. Furthermore, the various exercises De Mello prepared in Sadhana help participants overcome psychological issues, engage in self-reflection, and focus on improving their relationship with God.

Additionally, De Mello utilized techniques such as the empty chair technique and role-playing, commonly used to treat contact boundary disturbances, in the Sadhana practice to foster a relationship with God. With the empty chair technique, participants were encouraged to imagine Jesus sitting in the empty chair, engaging in conversation and prayer, which proved highly effective. De Mello actively recommended this method as the quickest way to experience Jesus’ presence (A. De Mello 1984). Role-playing was another technique frequently employed by De Mello. As mentioned earlier, in the early stages of developing the Sadhana practice, participants hesitated to openly share their issues in front of others. Publicly expressing deeply personal psychological and faith-related issues may have been challenging in the context of Indian society at the time. To address this, De Mello introduced role-playing, taking on the role of a client himself to elicit honest expression, thereby helping participants gradually open up and become accustomed to the group therapy environment.

De Mello’s incorporation of Vipassana practice into the Sadhana practice can be analyzed as an effort to actively utilize the effect of awareness that this practice offers. As is well known, the core of Vipassana practice is awareness, or mindfulness, and its effects have been substantiated through various studies. One prominent example is the Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) program developed by Jon Kabat-Zinn, which has been proven effective and used in clinical hospital settings for decades. According to Kabat-Zinn (2023), the MBSR program has demonstrated efficacy in reducing stress, enhancing focus, and improving self-awareness and emotional regulation.

Moreover, the historical value and effectiveness of Vipassana practice in the religious domain are widely recognized. As it is acknowledged as a practice directly utilized by the Buddha, Vipassana practice offers a method for leading a freer and more mature life through deep insight into oneself and the world. This aspect may have been particularly significant to De Mello. Having deeply understood Vipassana practice, he likely sought to actively incorporate this meditation method, which enables profound reflection on oneself and the world, into the Spiritual Exercises process. Thus, the emphasis on awareness in both Gestalt therapy and Vipassana practice became central to De Mello’s spirituality, orienting it toward a “spirituality of awareness.”

The question may arise as to how De Mello reconciled the potential religious tensions arising from the integration of Buddhist Vipassana meditation into the Spiritual Exercises rooted in Christian theology. Specifically, the theological perspectives of Buddhism and Christianity diverge significantly, particularly in their conceptions of divinity and the nature of the soul, prompting inquiry into how De Mello navigated these conflicting viewpoints. This issue is elucidated through insights provided in the subsequent quotation.

It’s infinitely more important that you be waking up. That’s spirituality, that’s everything. If you have that, you have God. Then you worship “in spirit and truth.” … So that’s what we have been talking about. Spirituality. Waking up. And as I told you, it is extremely important if you want to wake up to go in for what I call “self-observation.” … The unaware life is not worth living. The unaware life is a mechanical life. It’s not human, it’s a programmed, conditioned. We might as well be a stone, a block of wood.

(A. De Mello 1990, pp. 65–67)

As evident in the above passage, where De Mello’s strong assertions and appeals stand out, he urges people to live a life pursuing awareness. He emphasizes that this awareness must be sought in every moment of life through awareness. He argues that a life devoid of awareness cannot be considered truly human and is religiously meaningless, stressing the need to strive for awareness to be alive in every moment of life. This underscores the profound influence that the emphasis on awareness in Gestalt therapy and Vipassana practice had on shaping his spirituality.

In establishing the criteria for evaluating a religion’s merit, De Mello emphasized its capacity to foster self-awareness in individuals (A. De Mello 1990). Furthermore, De Mello, who firmly adhered to an apophatic theological perspective, regarded God as an ineffable mystery, positing that the highest form of divine knowledge is knowing Him as the unknowable (ibid.). Grounded in this apophatic theology and a pluralistic view of religion, De Mello believed that the essence of religion lies not in the worship of a specific deity but in promoting human self-awareness. Consequently, his integration of Vipassana meditation—a practice rooted in Buddhist tradition—did not constitute a contradiction. By selectively adopting Vipassana’s core methodologies of mindfulness and breathing techniques, rather than fully embracing Buddhist doctrines, De Mello minimized potential conflicts arising from differing theological perspectives, rendering such differences largely inconsequential.

6. Conclusions

This study has examined Anthony de Mello’s Sadhana practice from a religious–psychological perspective, applying Carl Gustav Jung’s analytical psychology theory and his views on the Spiritual Exercises. As a result, the significance and value of the Sadhana practice, which integrates psychotherapeutic methods such as Gestalt therapy and the methodology of Vipassana practice into the process of the Spiritual Exercises, have been analyzed as follows.

First, Jung highly valued Ignatius’ Spiritual Exercises, characterizing them as extraverted based on his analytical psychology theory. Applying Jung’s logic to Vipassana practice and psychological therapies, their characteristics can be defined as introverted. Thus, De Mello’s attempt to combine the extraverted Spiritual Exercises with the introverted psychotherapeutic methods and Vipassana practice in the Sadhana practice holds significant meaning from Jung’s perspective. This is because it pursues wholeness through the union of opposites. Jung believed that opposing elements coexist within the human psyche, and their harmonization is central to the individuation process. From the perspective of pursuing wholeness, practices that integrate opposing elements to foster inner growth and maturity can be considered meaningful endeavors.

Second, as emphasized by Fritz Perls, the founder of Gestalt therapy, the core of this therapy lies in awareness and contact. Gestalt therapy views all psychological disorders as stemming from a lack of awareness and contact, asserting that mental health can be restored by recovering these aspects. By incorporating Gestalt therapy into the Spiritual Exercises, De Mello guided participants to enhance their awareness and utilized methods to address various types of contact boundary disturbances, enabling self-reflection and the restoration of their relationship with God.

De Mello’s incorporation of Vipassana practice into the Sadhana practice can be seen as an effort to leverage the effect of awareness, or mindfulness, which is central to this practice. The efficacy of Vipassana has been substantiated through various studies, with a notable example being Jon Kabat-Zinn’s Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) program, which has been recognized for its effectiveness and used in clinical hospital settings for decades. Furthermore, the historical value and efficacy of Vipassana practice in the religious domain are widely acknowledged, as it enables a freer and more mature life through deep insight into oneself and the world. De Mello likely focused on this aspect, actively incorporating Vipassana practice into the process of the Spiritual Exercises.

Anthony de Mello’s Sadhana practice presents new possibilities for contemporary Christian spirituality by integrating psychotherapeutic methods like Gestalt therapy and the methodology of Vipassana practice into the Spiritual Exercises. This approach can serve as a meaningful guide for all individuals seeking spiritual growth, transcending religious boundaries.

From the perspective of Jungian psychology, his endeavor carries particular significance in its pursuit of wholeness through the integration of opposites. Furthermore, the incorporation of Gestalt therapy into the Spiritual Exercises demonstrates its potential to cultivate heightened self-reflection and to facilitate the restoration of the individual’s relationship with God. Such an analysis allows for a more comprehensive appreciation of both the scholarly and practical contributions of the Sadhana practice.