The Role of Health, Religiosity, and Motivational Needs in Predicting Psychological Well-Being Among University of the Third Age Students

Abstract

Modern Western societies are “aging” at a very high rate, and more and more people require assistance and care. Old age has different faces, which is due to genetic conditions, as well as the different contexts and lifestyles of people. To ensure good adaptation of seniors, it is important to determine the conditions for “successful aging”. Therefore, the purpose of the conducted study was to determine the importance of selected predictors, including the level of religiosity, assessment of health, and the intensity of motivational needs of seniors—students of the University of the Third Age—for the level of their well-being. A total of 115 people were surveyed, including 93 women and 21 men who were students in the first year of the Third Age University at the Pontifical University of John Paul II in Krakow. The surveyed seniors represented an autonomous type of religiosity, a high level of realization of the needs of self-determination, namely autonomy and competence, declared an average assessment of the state of their health, and revealed an increased level of eudaimonic well-being. Predictors of the level of well-being of the surveyed seniors turned out to be the variables religious experience, need for autonomy and competence, and health status, as assessed by the seniors.

1. Introduction

The process of population aging in highly industrialized countries is particularly intensified today, as the percentage of people reaching senior age has increased significantly. Since 1950, life expectancy has increased by more than two decades. According to the World Health Organization, the number of people over 60 in almost every country is growing faster than in any other age group. In Poland, seniors are projected to make up 32% in 2035, while in 2050, their share will rise to more than 40% of the entire Polish population (Central Statistical Office 2024). Similar trends are predicted in other societies in Western countries. This reflects a combination of influences from a variety of factors, including technological advances creating more favorable living conditions and better medical treatment than in the past, which is conducive to prolonging the life of the senior generation. A factor responsible for aging is also the decline in fertility in the generations entering adulthood. Paradoxically, these changes are accompanied by the cult of youth, attractive appearance, and unwavering physical condition spreading in Western societies, which leads to the perception of aging people as less valuable compared to young people or people in middle adulthood. At the same time, in many countries, there are attempts to activate aging adults, for example, by involving them in a variety of activities such as tourism (Zhang et al. 2022). Educational activities for aging adults are carried out, for example, by Universities of the Third Age, enabling the inclusion of the elderly in the system of lifelong learning, offering informal education that provides rich, diverse knowledge.

1.1. Positive and Negative Aspects of Old Age

Establishing an unambiguous threshold of old age can be very difficult due to the lengthening of human life and the shifting boundaries of successive developmental stages and the individual rate of aging, which is why the formal boundary—retirement—is most often accepted as the moment that begins the period of senior age, which in many societies is 60/65 years of age.

Today, both positive and negative aspects of senior age are pointed out. People who reach retirement age are in good physical condition and declare activity sustained at the current level, but are focused on other spheres of life: family life, developing interests, and pro-social activities, as well as expanding their knowledge through continuing education. Involvement in the realization of goals unrelated to the duty of professional work, but autonomously formulated, is usually associated with high life satisfaction (Bar-Tur 2021). However, it should not be overlooked that the period of old age is associated with a different range of regressive changes in the efficiency and capacity of organs and systems, as well as a greater risk of simultaneous occurrence of multiple somatic diseases (polypathology). Typical problems in old age include hearing loss, cataracts and refractive defects, back and neck pain and osteoarthritis, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, diabetes, depression, and dementia. Most often, the standard of seniors’ material conditions and the extent of their social contacts decline with the end of their working lives. Sooner or later, they are faced with the loss of a spouse and close peers, as well as experiencing the passing and inevitability of their own death, which is often a trigger for the manifestation of depressive disorders (Grenade and Boldy 2008). As many authors of the life-span development trend point out, senior age is a time of taking stock of life and increased reflection on its meaning (Erikson 1959; Charpentier et al. 2008; Hupkens et al. 2018). According to Havighurst (1972), the acceptance of deteriorating health and generally weaker physical condition is one of the basic developmental tasks of senior citizens. As this author’s concept shows, successful coping with the developmental tasks characteristic of this period of life, as well as any of the others, is associated with experiencing satisfaction and motivates further development. It should also be remembered that the state of health itself, as one of the most important determinants of any life activity, can significantly determine the level of satisfaction with life. A characteristic feature of the aging period is the occurrence of a large inter-individual variation resulting from differences in genetic predispositions, life experiences, and self-activity (Bee 2004). This diversity is a characteristic of older age. This means that some 80-year-olds may represent a level of both physical and mental fitness similar to many 20-year-olds (Oliver et al. 2014). In terms of physical fitness, this regularity is indicated by the results of a study of Polish seniors, because 39.0% of the total number of respondents said they had no significant problems, but at the same time nearly one in four respondents (23.4%) indicated poor health (Center for Research on Old Age and Aging. Reference Research Center 2024). Thus, old age can have different faces; it can be creative and cheerful and also sad and troublesome, which is determined by inter-individual differences, as well as the dynamics of intra-individual changes (Rembowski 1984).

In modern societies, there is an emphasis on making this positive side of aging predominate, and this is possible provided that the basic health-related and psychological needs of seniors are met: autonomy and experiencing self-efficacy, self-esteem, positive social relationships, and meaning in life. As Ryff (2014) noted, these needs and their fulfillment determine the so-called successful aging, which was then defined as human psychological well-being. A single, universal definition of successful aging is lacking, and various studies have used different operational definitions of the concept. Referring to the classic concept of Rowe and Kahn (1997), successful aging is defined here as the functioning of seniors at a high level in the physical, psychological, and social spheres without serious illness.

1.2. Health Condition and Well-Being of Seniors

The World Health Organization (WHO) states that well-being exists in two dimensions: subjective and objective. This division coincides with contemporary psychological accounts of well-being, which derive from two philosophical traditions: hedonistic and eudaimonistic. The first, referring to the philosophy of Aristippus of Cyrene, defines well-being as experiencing pleasure and subjective satisfaction with life (Ryan and Deci 2001; Diener 1984). It includes daily feelings and moods, such as perceived happiness, sadness, anger, and stress, or, in a slightly broader sense, also an individual’s overall assessment of quality of life at a certain stage, according to self-established standards (Diener et al. 1999; Ryff et al. 2004). Hedonistic well-being shows an increase with age; older adults tend to show a decrease in negative affect and an increase in positive affect until late adulthood, with external events being predictors of the level of momentary feelings of happiness (Bar-Tur 2021). Eudaimonic well-being, on the other hand, is anchored in Aristotle’s eudaimonia and denotes the feeling that accompanies the realization of a person’s potential in life according to his or her nature (Ryff 1989; Waterman et al. 2010), and reflects the search for and possession of a sense of purpose and meaning in life. Compared to hedonistic well-being, it therefore requires more complex cognitive processing.

According to Ryff (1989), the author of the most popular psychological concept of eudaimonic well-being and an instrument for its study, this well-being can be described within six dimensions of positive functioning: (1) self-acceptance, (2) personal growth, (3) purpose in life, (4) autonomy, (5) environmental mastery, and (6) positive relations with others. Self-acceptance indicates the degree of a person’s insight into his or her own weaknesses and strengths, as well as the ability to accept both his or her own successes and failures. The personal growth dimension describes the intensity of the process of acquiring new skills and developing existing ones. Purpose in life refers to the ability to formulate life tasks with which a person associates the meaning of his life and which he strives to achieve even in the face of adversity. Autonomy is defined as independence and self-control and is revealed in resistance to external pressures. The dimension of environmental mastery helps determine the degree of agency and ability to transform the environment based on values. The dimension positive relations with others is defined as an empathic individual’s experience of positive benevolent relationships with other people, and the ability to enter into stable, deep social relationships based on friendship and love (Ryff 1989). With age, especially in the lives of seniors, the level of eudaimonic well-being tends to decrease, especially in the evaluation of purpose in life and personal growth, and if it remains stable it means that aging people are using effective adaptive processes. The psychological literature sometimes distinguishes a separate type of well-being: social well-being, which is determined by the optimal functioning of a person in social life (Keyes 1998). The aforementioned types of well-being relate to different areas of psychological experience; however, according to research, they are interrelated (Robitschek and Keyes 2009).

According to research, the level of well-being is particularly important for the functioning of senior citizens, but at the same time, it is itself determined by numerous factors, such as material conditions, social and family relationships, social roles and areas, forms of activity, and quality of health. Most often, studies separately analyze their importance for positive aging. Considering several of these factors simultaneously, on the other hand, will make it possible to determine their importance for seniors’ well-being when they are put in the broader context of other conditions.

Health is one of the most important resources that people consider essential to well-being (Dolan et al. 2008) and indeed, to a significant extent, health status (both physical and mental health) can affect well-being (Wikman et al. 2011; Sprangers and Schwartz 1999). Research findings indicate that both acute health problems experienced shortly before the study and long-term chronic ill health significantly reduce an individual’s level of well-being (Shields and Price 2005). A bidirectional relationship between physical health and subjective well-being is indicated. Decreases in hedonic and eudaimonic well-being, for example, have been observed in a group of men and women struggling with the effects of stroke, or experiencing chronic lung disease and rheumatoid arthritis, as well as in people with diabetes and cancer, with a decrease in eudaimonic well-being occurring in those with several comorbidities (Wikman et al. 2011). At the same time, it appears that the level of well-being affects the level of their physical condition and quality of health. The results of a study on a sample of aging women, for example, showed that those with higher levels of eudaimonic well-being compared to those with lower levels of eudaimonic well-being had lower physiological indicators of stress, or inflammation. Similar correlations were not reported for hedonic well-being (Ryff et al. 2004). Additionally, in the Longitudinal Study of Ageing (ELSA)1, it was found that eudaimonic well-being is associated with longer survival. Thus, it can play a protective role in maintaining health and, to some extent, determine life expectancy. Therefore, in modern societies, maintaining the well-being of the elderly is an important goal of both economic and health policies.

The results of the MIDUS (Midlife Research, USA) study indicate that a number of psychosocial factors, such as purpose in life, activity, social relationships, proficiency at something, and pro-social behavior (i.e., making up eudaimonic well-being), predict better health, less disability, and better cognitive function in aging adults, even taking into account their disabilities and chronic illnesses (Tse et al. 2024).

1.3. Religiosity and Well-Being of Seniors

Seniors, depending on the type of psycho-physical resources they have, use a variety of strategies to cope with the challenges of the aging process. Religious strategies occupy a significant place among them. Religiosity is often defined as a person’s subjective, individual attitude toward God, expressed in the sphere of a person’s concepts, beliefs, feelings, and behaviors related to worship, which takes institutionalized and organized forms (Miller and Thoresen 2003). One way of describing religiosity is the concept of Huber (2003, 2007), who characterizes religiosity in terms of Kelly’s personal constructs (Zarzycka 2011). The position of religious constructs in relation to other personal constructs in the personality structure determines a person’s type of religiosity: a central position manifests intrinsic religiosity; a subordinate position in relation to other personal constructs indicates heteronomous religiosity; and a marginal position of a construct indicates a lack of interest in religious issues. The results of both cross-sectional as well as longitudinal studies indicate that older people tend to be more religious and represent a higher level of spiritual development than younger people (Wilhelm et al. 2007; Moberg 2005; Wink and Dillon 2001; Bengtson et al. 2015). Older people are more likely than younger people to reveal autonomous religiosity. They practice personal piety, do in-depth reflection, take an interest in religious issues, read religious texts, have religious authorities, and form stronger personal bonds with God. This is accompanied by a deeper sense of meaning in life and, over time, experiencing a decline in physical functioning less often than among peers who are not engaged in this way (Krok 2014; Krause and Hayward 2012; Brzezińska 2011).

Seniors’ religiosity may underlie both positive and negative coping with the challenges of aging (Steuden 2011). Negative use of religiosity involves inhibiting or avoiding selected activities due to religious values, mainly the image of a demanding God and a religious community (Harrison et al. 2001). An example of negative use of religion in coping with the challenges of senior age can manifest itself in a person relying solely on religious prohibitions, withdrawing from daily activities in favor of increased participation in various forms of religious celebrations (bigotry). Positive uses of religiosity represent religiously motivated activities that support spiritual, social, or cognitive development. They can manifest themselves in behavioral activism aimed at helping others in various ways, or charitable activities, seeking individual support from clergy, concern for the development of one’s inner life, changing attitudes toward loved ones (e.g., forgiving difficult experiences), or reinterpreting the purpose and meaning of one’s own life (Harrison et al. 2001). A study of American seniors two decades ago found that they were more likely than younger people to use positive religious coping strategies to deal with difficult challenges and the stress that comes with them (Steuden 2011). Numerous studies indicate a positive relationship between religiosity and well-being in various age groups, including senior citizens (Emmons et al. 1998; Masters et al. 2004). Various mechanisms underpinning this relationship are mentioned, such as religion and religiosity as a source of comfort and joy in difficult moments of life (Zulehner 2002), a protective effect through the support of a religious community and also religious practices in stressful times (Bazarko et al. 2013; Cohen-Katz et al. 2005; Lutz et al. 2004), or as a factor in building one’s own identity by facilitating finding answers to the question of one’s place in the world (Hood et al. 2009). The adaptive function of seniors’ religiosity can be seen in the process of searching for and discovering meaning in life and the meaning of life, one of the dimensions of well-being. This applies both to one’s own past, in which difficult and unexplainable experiences were present, and to the future, which remains unknown (McLeod-Harrison 2020). Religious, sense-making reflection acquires particular importance in situations “approaching” the moment of inevitable death. Among Polish seniors, a sense of omnipresent death has been noted quite widely, increasingly affecting themselves, but also more frequently occurring in the immediate environment of their peers. These phenomena often result in older adults taking stock of their lives (Brzezińska 2011).

Characteristic of late adulthood reflection about one’s own life, experiences of successes and failures can naturally direct a person towards transcendence. Religious systems, by exposing salvation as the primary goal of believers, open up the possibility of development even at the end of life (Gray 2019). According to Erik Erikson, individuals in the last phase of life can achieve the virtue of wisdom resulting from the integration of elements of identity built throughout life (Erikson 1959). Spiritual and religious values play an important role in this process by allowing one to transcend increasingly weaker somatic and psychological dimensions (Orenstein and Lewis 2022). Religiosity through involvement in worship practices, on the one hand, fosters the development of positive social relationships and, on the other, leads to the experience of greater social support, contributing to high levels of psychological well-being (Bożek et al. 2020; Valino 2021).

1.4. Needs of Seniors Determining Their Activities as a Source of Well-Being

According to the self-determination theory (SDT) by Deci and Ryan (1985, 2017), the satisfaction of universal needs (i.e., competence, autonomy, and relatedness) is important for intensifying intrinsic motivation (Deci et al. 1991), which in turn promotes psychological well-being (Tang et al. 2021). The need for competence refers to an individual’s personal belief that he or she has the right set of skills to perform the tasks facing him or her. As a result, he takes on daily challenges and has a desire to improve his skills. Autonomy is a person’s natural need to direct his or her own life and make decisions in accordance with his or her own desires and values. When an individual has the ability to choose and make decisions, he feels more motivated and engaged in his activities. Relatedness refers to the desire to have close relationships with other people, to cooperate, to accept support from others, and to belong. These relationships make it easier for an individual to take actions that are in line with his values and goals. Satisfying the aforementioned needs enables an individual to act effectively, adopt an active attitude and maintain it despite difficulties that arise, and develop intrinsic motivation to act. Motivation is defined here as “the driving forces responsible for the initiation, persistence, direction and strength of goal-oriented behavior” (Colman 2015, p. 412). Intrinsically motivated behaviors are undertaken for the pleasure and satisfaction of performing them (Deci 1971). They are voluntarily performed in the absence of material rewards or constraints (Deci and Ryan 1987). Intrinsic motivation stems from the need to feel competent and self-determined (Deci and Ryan 1985). Activities that lead an individual to feel competent and/or self-determined internally satisfy and are likely to be performed again. Extrinsically motivated behaviors are performed in order to receive or avoid something after the activity has ended (Deci 1975). A positive relationship between the intensity of intrinsic motivation and the level of well-being has been discovered in numerous studies on various forms of young adults’ activities (Blais et al. 1990; Deci and Ryan 1987; Kobasa 1979; Vallerand et al. 1993), and in the case of seniors, in selected spheres of their activities, such as tourism (Vallerand and O’Connor 1989; Zhang et al. 2022; Tang et al. 2021). Thus, it is indicated that it is not so much the activity of elderly people per se, but the type of motivation and underlying needs that trigger and sustain this activity that seems to be related to their level of psychological well-being. Therefore, it was of interest to us to see if the needs distinguished by Ryan and Deci that guide seniors undertaking education at a Third Age University similarly determine their psychological well-being.

1.5. Universities of the Third Age as a Space for Seniors’ Activity

A special form of seniors’ activity is participation in Universities of the Third Age (UTA), i.e., organizations created on the initiative of universities, local authorities, or cultural centers whose purpose is the education and stimulation of mainly retired members of the community, those in their third ‘age’ of life. The program and form of activities offered there are adapted to the capabilities and needs of the elderly. They focus on the development and maintenance of cognitive and motor competencies, the fitness of which decline in late adulthood, provide opportunities for the development of interests, develop the talents that seniors possess, educate on health and new technologies, and answer questions related to the meaning and purpose of existence (Hasińska and Tracz 2013). Thanks to the wide range of different classes and activities that can be taken at the UTAs, they fulfill the function of continuing education for the elderly and thus facilitate the developmental tasks that occur during this period. Thanks to this, they work against the social exclusion of seniors, keep them active by delaying the negative consequences of old age seen primarily in the areas of mental and somatic health and daily resourcefulness, and facilitate independent functioning in an increasingly rapidly changing world (Formosa 2019). One example of this type of institution is the UTA operating at Pope John Paul II University in Krakow, which is a Catholic university and also a public university. The classes that participants at this university can enjoy consist of lectures in theology, philosophy, psychology, history, sociology, pedagogy, cultural studies, art, literary studies, and biblical studies. In addition, seniors can take part in foreign language classes, practical workshops training them in computer science, art therapy, dance, singing, and theater. They also take part in joint pilgrimages and integration trips, and form volunteer groups to support people in need. Among the students of the UTA operating at Pope John Paul II University in Krakow, which is a Catholic university, people interested in religious issues predominate. Therefore, some of the lectures contain content referring to religion and the Catholic faith, which for the participating seniors provide a space for the development of mature religiosity that can be an important resource for well-being and holistic functioning (Dziedzic 2018). It was the students of the UTW at Pope John Paul II University who were the respondents of the study analyzed in this article.

1.6. Aims of Research

The purpose of our study is to determine the importance of the selected predictors, the level of religiosity, health assessment, and the intensity of motivational needs of seniors and listeners of the University of the Third Age, for the level of their well-being. Usually in the literature, the conditions of “successful aging” are analyzed, which represent one group of factors, such as those related to fitness, physical activity, health assessment, or separately related to the activity of seniors. Meanwhile, in order to understand the mechanisms of “successful aging”, a more holistic approach that simultaneously takes into account the role of various conditions is important, and such an approach was used in the author’s study presented here. Therefore, in our study, we tested whether such variables, including health assessment, religious activity, and type of motivation in undertaking education at the University of the Third Age, are predictors of the level of psychological well-being of the seniors surveyed.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Group and Procedure

The study involved 115 individuals, including 93 women (81%) and 22 men (19%), all of whom were first-year students of the University of the Third Age at the Pontifical University of John Paul II in Kraków. The survey was conducted in November 2024 using the PAPI (Paper and Pen Interview) method; questionnaires were self-completed by respondents and returned two weeks later.

Respondents were informed that their participation in the study was voluntary. Undertaking to fill out the distributed sheets was considered consent, while those who did not want to participate in the study refused to accept the sheets or did not return them. Survey participants were given two weeks to complete the distributed sheets, avoiding the time pressure that sometimes occurs during real-time surveys.

Care was also taken to ensure anonymity by asking respondents to mark individual sheets with a distinctive code that did not reveal their personal information. Throughout the study, participants were able to ask questions of clarification to the researchers and receive psychological support.

Approval of the study was obtained from the Ethical Committee for Scientific Research of the Pontifical University of John Paul II in Krakow.

The respondents were of Polish origin. The majority of the participants had higher education (N = 67; 58.3%), 44 individuals (38.3%) reported having completed secondary education, and the remaining 2 individuals (1.7%) had vocational education. Most participants were retirees (N = 96; 83.5%). The remaining respondents identified as professionally active: 16 people (13.9%) combined retirement with work, and 3 individuals (2.6%) declared themselves professionally active and not receiving retirement benefits. Sixty-one respondents (53%) were married. Every fourth person declared being a widow or widower (26.1%; N = 30), and every fifth was single (18.3%; N = 21). The remaining 3 people (2.6%) were divorced. One in four respondents was childless (25.2%; N = 29), while the others had at least one child. Characteristics of the study group are showed in

Table 1. Characteristics of surveyed seniors.

		N	Percent
Sex	Female	93	81
	Male	22	19
Education	Higher education	67	58.3
	Secondary school	44	38.3
	Vocational education	2	1.7
	No declaration	2	1.7
Social status	Retirees	96	83.5
	Professionally active	16	13.9
	Retirement with work	3	2.6
Marital status	Married	61	53
	Widow/widower	30	26.1
	Single	21	18.3
	Divorced	3	2.6
Children	Yes	86	74.8
	No	29	25.2
Total		115	100

.

2.2. Measures

To test the hypotheses formulated above, the following instruments were used to assess seniors’ religiosity, well-being, health status, and the intensity of needs motivating their participation in the University of the Third Age:

The Centrality of Religiosity Scale (CR-15) by S. Huber, in the Polish adaptation by Beata Zarzycka (2011), is designed to measure the centrality of religious attitudes and their components, according to Huber’s model. The scale consists of 15 items, covering five dimensions of religiosity (i.e., interest in religious issues, religious beliefs, prayer, religious experience, and public practice), with three items per dimension, and the global score represents the centrality of religion. Responses are given on a 5-point Likert scale from 1 to 5 points (where 1 = not at all/never, 2 = not very much/rarely, 3 = moderately/occasionally, 4 = quite a bit/often, and 5 = very much so/very often). The total score ranges from 15 to 75. The reliability of the total scale (Cronbach’s alpha) was 0.93, and ranges from 0.90 to 0.82 for the subscales (Zarzycka 2011).

The Polish adaptation of the Psychological Well-Being Scales by C. Ryff and Keyes was used (Karaś and Cieciuch 2017). These scales assess six dimensions of psychological well-being in a eudaimonic framework: autonomy, self-acceptance, positive relations with others, personal growth, purpose in life, and environmental mastery. The scale contains 84 items rated on a scale from 1 to 6 (1—“I strongly disagree”, 2—“I disagree”, 3—“I rather disagree”, 4—“I rather agree”, 5—“I agree”, and 6—“I strongly agree”). Each subscale had a Cronbach’s alpha above 0.70 (Ryff and Keyes 1995; Karaś and Cieciuch 2017).

The Health Status Scale was developed ad hoc by the authors of this article. It included four questions related to the (1) general (subjective) assessment of health, (2) frequency of illnesses, (3) frequency of doctor visits, and (4) past surgeries or medical procedures. Each question had a 5-point response Likert scale (from “very often” (5) to “never” (1)/“very good” (5) to “very poor” (1)). An overall health score was calculated by summing the responses to all items. The total score thus ranged from 4 to 20 points. Cronbach’s alpha for the Health Status Scale was 0.72.

Factor analysis using principal component analysis and Varimax rotation allowed us to identify one factor describing the overall level of health. The Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy was 0.75, and Bartlett’s test of sphericity was significant (χ² = 88.72, df = 6, p < 0.001), indicating that the data were suitable for factor analysis. The factor loadings ranged from 0.67 to 0.81. The single-factor questionnaire developed in this way explains 55% of the variance of the “health status” variable.

To measure the degree to which seniors’ needs are fulfilled through their participation in the University of the Third Age, the authors used their original questionnaire, Seniors’ Motivation for Lifelong Education, based on Ryan–Deci’s self-determination theory. The Seniors’ Motivation for Lifelong Education Questionnaire (KMSE) was developed ad hoc by the authors for the purpose of this article. It consists of three scales, each containing five items referring to people’s basic psychological needs, as proposed by Ryan and Deci: competence, relatedness, and autonomy scales. Sample items for each scale include the following:

• “I enrolled in the University of the Third Age because attending classes provides an opportunity to establish relationships with new people” (relatedness).
• “The content of the classes is strongly related to my beliefs” (autonomy).
• “Expanding religious knowledge is important” (competence).

Answers were given on a 5-point Likert scale (from 1 to 5 points where 1 = “I disagree” and 5 = “I agree”). The minimum score for each scale is 5 points and the maximum is 25 points. A higher score on the scales indicates a higher degree of satisfaction of the needs described in each of them. The Cronbach’s alphas for the scales were 0.77 for autonomy, 0.72 for relatedness, and 0.22 for competence.

Factor analysis using principal component analysis and Varimax rotation allowed us to identify three factors: competence, social reference, and autonomy. The Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy was 0.75, and Bartlett’s test of sphericity was significant (χ² = 516.52, df = 105, p < 0.001), indicating that the data were suitable for factor analysis. The strength of the loadings of individual items in all three factors ranged from 0.41 to 0.81. The three-factor questionnaire developed in this way explains 51% of the variance of the “needs” variable.

2.3. Data Analysis

The first step of analysis consisted of computing descriptive statistics. To explore relationships between the analyzed variables (i.e., religiosity, needs, health condition, and well-being—total score) of the surveyed seniors, correlation analysis was performed using Pearson correlation. The relationship being studied is linear. Then, regression analysis using the enter method was used, because it was wanted to explore the relationships between the measured variables. According to Tabachnick and Fidell (2007), this is the best method to check the relationships between variables, in the absence of the assumption of dominance of any of them. In this way, a model was obtained in which the significant influence of several variables was distinguished and the assumption about the prediction of the remaining ones was rejected. All calculations were performed using the statistical program IBM SPSS Version: 28.0.1.0.

3. Results

3.1. Descriptive Statistics

3.1.1. Characteristics of Religiosity Among Students of the University of the Third Age

To assess the level of religiosity among respondents, the Centrality of Religiosity Scale (CRS-15) by Huber was used. The average score of the overall level of religiosity of the whole group of respondents (M = 64.86, D = 6.90) indicates the type of autonomous religiosity. Descriptive statistics concerning the dimensions of religiosity are presented in

Table 2. Characteristics of the religiosity of surveyed seniors.

	N	M	SD	Min	Max	Range	Cron.
Interest in religious issues	115	12.70	1.753	7	15	3–15	0.69
Religious beliefs	115	14.32	1.460	4	15	3–15	0.76
Prayer	115	13.49	1.552	3	15	3–15	0.71
Religious experience	115	10.82	2.383	3	15	3–15	0.85
Public practice	115	13.54	1.645	5	15	3–15	0.65
Centrality of religion	115	64.86	6.895	23	75	15–75	0.89

N—number; M—mean; SD—standard deviation; Min—minimum; Max—maximum; Cron.—Cronbach’s alpha.

.

Analysis of CRS-15 results by type of religiosity revealed that the vast majority of participants showed autonomous religiosity (81.7%, N = 94), followed by heteronomous religiosity (17.4%, N = 20), and marginal religiosity (0.9%) (see

Table 3. Characteristics of the type of religiosity of surveyed seniors.

	N	Percent	Cumulative Percentage
Religious marginality	1	0.9	0.9
Religious heteronomy	20	17.4	18.3
Religious autonomy	94	81.7	100.0
Total	115	100.0

).

3.1.2. Seniors’ Needs Fulfilled Through Lifelong Learning at the University of the Third Age

In the scales measuring the fulfillment of needs for autonomy and competence, respondents obtained above-average scores (autonomy = 19.98/max 35, competence = 21.16/max 35). A lower score was observed in the relatedness dimension (11.82/35). The mean results obtained are presented in

Table 4. The level of realization of needs related to seniors’ lifelong learning.

Primary Needs	N	M	SD	Min	Max	Range	Cron.
Ryan–Deci: Autonomy	115	19.98	2.841	13	25	5–25	0.77
Ryan–Deci: Competence	115	21.16	3.350	10	25	5–25	0.22
Ryan–Deci: Relatedness	115	11.82	4.549	5	23	5–25	0.72

N—number M—mean; SD—standard deviation; Min—minimum; Max—maximum; Cron.—Cronbach’s alpha.

.

3.1.3. Seniors’ Self-Assessed Health Condition

Respondents’ answers to questions related to physical condition (i.e., (1) general subjective assessment of health, (2) frequency of illness, (3) frequency of visits to the doctor, and (4) number of surgeries or medical procedures undergone), taking into account the possible limits of the minimum and maximum score (4 points–20 points), indicate an average assessment of one’s own health condition (see

Table 5. Assessment of health by seniors.

	N	M	SD	Min	Max	Range	Cron.
Health condition	115	10.90	3.442	4	18	4–20	0.72

N—number; M—mean; SD—standard deviation; Min—minimum; Max—maximum; Cron.—Cronbach’s alpha.

).

3.1.4. Level of Psychological Well-Being of Seniors—Third Age Students

Based on the results obtained by the surveyed seniors in the Psychological Well-Being Scales by C. Ryff and Keyes, the overall level of their eudaimonic well-being and the intensity of each of the six dimensions of this well-being were determined. The average results, within the possible score range (from 84 to 504 points), showed high levels of overall psychological well-being (M = 356.57; SD = 36.83), as well as in each of its dimensions (see

Table 6. Characteristics of well-being dimensions and the total score of well-being.

Well-Being Dimension	N	M	SD	Min	Max	Range	Cron.
Autonomy	115	59.43	8.235	40	80	14–84	0.77
Environmental mastery	115	59.30	8.017	38	76	14–84	0.79
Personal growth	115	59.40	6.606	41	75	14–84	0.68
Positive relations with others	115	60.90	7.871	44	77	14–84	0.80
Purpose in life	115	59.57	7.822	38	76	14–84	0.60
Self-acceptance	115	57.96	8.882	28	75	14–84	0.84
Well-being—total score	115	356.57	36.832	265	434	84–504	0.93

N—number; M—mean; SD—standard deviation; Min—minimum; Max—maximum; Cron.—Cronbach’s alpha.

).

3.2. Relationships Between the Level of Religiosity, Needs, Health Assessment, and Eudaimonic Well-Being of Seniors—Students of the University of the Third Age

3.2.1. Correlations Between the Level of Religiosity, Needs, Health Assessment, and Eudaimonic Well-Being of Studied Seniors

The analysis of correlations between the studied variables allows us to conclude the existence of statistically significant, although not very strong correlations (see

Table 7. Pearson correlations between religiosity, needs (Ryan–Deci theory), health condition, and well-being (total score) of the surveyed seniors.

		Religiosity						Needs (RD Theory)			HEAL	WELL
		INT	IDE	PPR	REX	PUP	C15	AUT	COM	REL
Religiosity	INT	1
	RB	0.539 **	1
	PPR	0.567 **	0.600 **	1
	REX	0.510 **	0.383 **	0.567 **	1
	PUP	0.508 **	0.646 **	0.569 **	0.372 **	1
	C15	0.793 **	0.770 **	0.828 **	0.773 **	0.761 **	1
Needs (RD theory)	AUT	0.099	0.077	0.115	0.080	−0.002	0.095	1
	COM	0.270 **	0.092	0.102	0.259 **	0.217 *	0.252 **	0.019	1
	REL	−0.060	−0.101	0.061	0.172	0.045	0.047	−0.268 **	0.350 **	1
HEAL		−0.074	−0.039	0.041	−0.026	−0.075	0.028	0.050	0.165	0.065	1
WELL		0.156	0.051	0.083	0.260 **	0.118	0.187 **	0.246 **	0.206 *	−0.108	0.218 *	1

INT—interest in religious issues; RB—religious beliefs; PPR—private practice; REX—religious experience; PUP—public practice; C15—centrality (total score); AUT—Ryan–Deci: autonomy; COM—Ryan–Deci: competence; REL—Ryan–Deci: relatedness; HEAL—health condition; WELL—well-being: total score; RD theory—Ryan–Deci theory; **, correlation is significant at the 0.01 level; *, correlation is significant at the 0.05 level.

) between (1) the level of eudaimonic well-being of the studied seniors and level of religiosity, religious experience, need for autonomy, need for competence, and health evaluation, and (2) the intensity of need for competence and level of religiosity, and the level of religious interest.

3.2.2. Selected Predictors of Well-Being of Seniors—Students of the University of the Third Age

In the procedure of regression analysis, the relationships between the overall well-being score and the level of religiosity, the variables included in religiosity, self-motivation (needs of competence, autonomy, and relatedness), and the level of health were counted. Significant results were obtained for the correlations of well-being with the variable religious experience, which is one of the five components of religiosity in Huber’s conception, and the total score of religiosity in this conception. In addition, the correlations of well-being with the scales of “autonomy” and “competence”, constituting two of the three components of the self-motivation concept in Ryan and Deci’s view, and well-being with the level of health proved significant.

A model was proposed in which the following variables were included to explain the variation in well-being (“explanatory variables”): (1) religiosity (five scales comprising this variable were included: interest in religious issues, religious beliefs, public practice, prayer, and religious experiences); (2) three factors comprising the internal needs that build self-motivation in Ryan and Deci’s terms (autonomy, competence, and relatedness); and (3) health status as assessed by the respondents. In our study, the variable well-being is the “response variable” (see

Table 8. Regression model explaining well-being by five components of religiosity, needs (Ryan–Deci theory), and health condition.

R	R-Squared	Adjusted R-Squared	Standard Error of the Estimate	F	Significance
0.475 a	0.226	0.159	33.768	3.403	0.001

Note: Dependent variable: Eudaimonic well-being (overall score). ^a. Explanatory variables: Health status; needs (by Ryan–Deci): autonomy, competence, and relatedness; interest in religious issues; religious beliefs; religious experiences; public practice; and prayer.

and

Table 9. Predictors of well-being.

Model	Unstandardized Coefficients		Standardized Coefficients	Significance
	B	Standard Error	Beta
(constant)	264.484	44.034		<0.001
Interest in religious issues	0.488	2.532	0.023	0.848
Religious beliefs	−3.188	3.177	−0.126	0.318
Private practice	−3.637	3.119	−0.153	0.246
Religious experience	4.843	1.735	0.313	0.006
Public practice	3.451	2.746	0.154	0.212
Ryan–Deci: autonomy	2.381	1.184	0.184	0.047
Ryan–Deci: competence	1.510	1.119	0.137	0.180
Ryan–Deci: relatedness	−1.488	0.818	−0.184	0.072
Health condition	1.838	0.743	0.221	0.015

Note: Dependent variable: Eudaimonic well-being (total score).

).

The model thus proposed is a good fit and explains 16% of the variation in the level of well-being. At the same time, only some of the variables included (religious experience, need for autonomy, and health status assessment) can predict the variation of the level of eudaimonic well-being.

4. Discussion of Results

4.1. Characteristics of the Surveyed Seniors in the Context of Their Religiosity, Basic Needs, Health Assessment, and Eudaimonic Well-Being

4.1.1. Religiosity of University of the Third Age Students

In the present study, the Centrality of Religiosity Scale (CRS-15) was used to describe the religiosity of elderly individuals studying at the University of the Third Age. According to Huber’s (2003) typology, the religiosity of the participants is best described as autonomous, indicating a high level of religious commitment. Among these individuals, religiosity holds a central place within their personality structure, meaning that their life decisions are influenced by the presence of God and religious values. For people with autonomous religiosity, faith constitutes a value in and of itself. High scores in each of the religiosity dimensions indicate a strong interest in religious matters, which likely served as an important motive for enrolling in the University of the Third Age at the Pontifical University of John Paul II. Participants also demonstrated strong belief in the truth of Christian dogmas, active participation in public practice, and regular private prayer (Zarzycka 2011). The described religious maturity of the surveyed seniors is, on the one hand, part of the developmental changes in religiosity that occur with aging (Wilhelm et al. 2007; Bengtson et al. 2015) and, on the other hand, may be the result of the selection of more religious people, who were attracted precisely by the religious topics of the courses to attend classes at the Catholic University. Attending lectures and workshops focused on religion and faith may both broaden knowledge and deepen religious engagement.

4.1.2. Seniors’ Needs Fulfilled Through Lifelong Learning at the University of the Third Age

The average scores from the Seniors’ Motivation for Lifelong Education Questionnaire suggest that the participants experienced relatively high levels of fulfillment for two psychological needs: autonomy and competence. This means that the seniors participating in the study tend to pursue and maintain educational activities based on their personal values and aspirations. They also feel confident in their own abilities to manage tasks associated with lifelong learning. This belief may stem, in part, from the fact that most of the participants had higher education degrees. Furthermore, participating in University of the Third Age programs provides an opportunity to acquire new knowledge and skills. Other studies also point to the importance of satisfying the needs for autonomy and competence in the lives of seniors (Dendle et al. 2022; Windsor et al. 2024). However, the need for relatedness—the desire for close relationships, cooperation, and support from others—was less fulfilled. Establishing deeper social connections often requires time and conducive circumstances, such as solving problems together or sharing meaningful educational experiences, but the current study was conducted just one month after the start of the academic year.

4.1.3. Health Condition as Assessed by the Surveyed Seniors

The average assessment of one’s own health condition obtained in the presented study means that the surveyed participants of the University of the Third Age experience various health ailments, with an average frequency of needing and using the help of a doctor. The respondents’ perception of their own health status corresponds to the characteristics of the physical condition in aging adulthood. Indeed, it is indicated that above the age of 65, the phenomenon of polypathology, that is, the simultaneous occurrence of multiple diseases, is more likely (Bee 2004; Steuden 2011).

4.1.4. The Level of Psychological Well-Being of Seniors—Third Age Students

In relation to psychological well-being, the results indicated an increase—both overall and across its various dimensions—among senior learners enrolled in the University of the Third Age. This allows us to conclude that they are characterized by independence, use internal regulation of their behavior, and have a sense of freedom and coping in life. Accepted beliefs and values set goals and give meaning to their lives. They have an adequate assessment of their own competence and undertake activities that, on the one hand, promote their development and, on the other hand, form a sense of agency. At the same time, they enter into close social relationships. In the literature, we find inconsistent information about the trends of changes in eudaimonic well-being in aging people. Some studies show that this well-being, compared to hedonic well-being, decreases in aging adults (Kwan et al. 2003), while the results of others indicate that changes in eudaimonic well-being take a U-shape, with a decrease in those in middle adulthood, followed by an increase in well-being (Steptoe et al. 2014). The use of effective adaptive strategies by seniors is supposed to safeguard against a decline in eudaimonic well-being (Ryff 2014). With regard to the surveyed seniors listening to the courses at the University of the Third Age, undertaking permanent education may be such a protective strategy against a decrease in eudaimonic well-being.

4.2. Relationships Between the Level of Religiosity, Needs, Health Assessment, and Eudaimonic Well-Being of Seniors—Students of the University of the Third Age

4.2.1. Correlations Between the Level of Religiosity, Needs, Health Assessment, and Eudaimonic Well-Being of Studied Seniors

The analysis of correlations between the analyzed variables allows us to conclude that the obtained results are in line with hypotheses H1–H3.

As expected from H1, stating that the level of religiosity of the surveyed seniors co-varies with the level of their eudaimonic well-being, as the level of religiosity and religious experience of the surveyed seniors increased, the level of their well-being increased. The results of many studies presented in the literature indicate similar relationships (Masters et al. 2004; Bazarko et al. 2013). The religiosity of aging people can enhance the well-being of seniors because it (1) provides a source of coherence, giving meaning to life events and coping with stressful life events, including losses associated with aging (McLeod-Harrison 2020); (2) fosters positive self-esteem and a sense of personal control, creating a sense of self-worth (Orenstein and Lewis 2022); (3) provides social resources (i.e., social ties and social support) within the religious community (Valino 2021); and (4) enhances a sense of autonomy by building a personalistic vision of the human being (Burgos 2025).

Hypothesis H2 predicted that health status, as perceived by surveyed Third Age University listeners, is positively correlated with their level of eudaimonic well-being. This expectation was also confirmed in our study. Indeed, a significant, albeit not very strong, positive correlation between these variables was noted. This relationship, present in the results of many studies, is explained by pointing to good health as a contributor to well-being on the one hand (Wikman et al. 2011), and well-being as a source of good physical condition on the other (Ryff et al. 2004).

Hypothesis H3, which states that the intensity of needs (competence, relatedness, and autonomy) is positively related to the level of eudaimonic well-being, found partial confirmation, as this relationship was noted for two of the needs mentioned: competence and autonomy. Involvement in educational activities at the University of the Third Age promotes the satisfaction of these needs and, consequently, enhances autonomy as well as self-esteem and a sense of control over one’s own life—which make up an individual’s well-being. It is also possible that people with high levels of well-being, believing in their abilities, formulate new goals (e.g., educational) and they are the ones who started at the Third Age University. Similar relationships are indicated by the results of studies of both young and aging adults (Müller et al. 2021; Zhang et al. 2022; Leow et al. 2023). In addition, strong relationships between the realization of basic psychological needs and the level of eudaimonic well-being are described by the authors of the self-determination theory (Ryan et al. 2008), emphasizing that eudaimonia results in behaviors that enable the satisfaction of basic psychological needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness.

4.2.2. Selected Predictors of Well-Being of Seniors—Students of the University of the Third Age

The main objective of the presented research was to check whether the analyzed variables (i.e., health status in the assessment of seniors, the level of their religiosity, and the intensity and realization of needs motivating them to take up education) allow predicting the level of their well-being. The results of the regression analysis obtained allow us to conclude that only a few of the variables considered (i.e., health status in the assessment of seniors, level of experience, and need for autonomy are predictors of the level of well-being of Third Age University listeners).

Health status is one of the important conditions that create opportunities or limitations for all forms of human activity (Shields and Price 2005); therefore, it can affect the level of almost every dimension of human well-being. This is because the state of health determines what goals a person pursues, and whether and to what extent he or she experiences the ability to control his or her own life and surrounding reality, as well as the extent of his or her relationships with other people. However, as the results of various studies have shown, even in the situation of significant limitations and suffering associated with diseases and infirmities of senior age, a person can shape his own development and even experience inner independence from weakness. The source of strength in such difficult situations is usually the person’s faith and religiosity. According to the results of our research, within the framework of religiosity in the broadest sense, the dimension referred to as religious experience is important for the well-being of seniors. Religious experience, according to Huber, means an individual’s experience of God’s presence and action, as well as affirmation of supernatural reality, accompanied by a belief in the certainty and truthfulness of what becomes a person’s experience during a relationship with God (Huber and Huber 2012). Communing with transcendence, on the one hand, allows a suffering person to break away from the limitations of his physical nature, and on the other hand, enables him to develop a sphere of spiritual experience and make sense of his weaknesses through reference to the Transcendent (Orenstein and Lewis 2022). The experience of God contains both cognitive and affective components, and for this reason may be more important to a person’s well-being than the other dimensions of religiosity (Zulehner 2002).

Another variable considered in our explorations to predict the variation in the level of well-being of senior students of the University of the Third Age is one of the three basic psychological needs: the need for autonomy. In the context of the research conducted, this need refers to the decision to engage in educational activities for third-age students, and here means that it is a decision that is in line with the subjects’ inner desires and values. As a result, these people are strongly committed to the activity they undertake, which is one of the meanings in their lives during aging. Exploring new forms of activity undertaken by their own choice strengthens their sense of agency, their ability to control their environment, and their experience of themselves as an autonomous individual (Ryan et al. 2008).

The results of the presented research may be significant for the elaboration and implementation of broadly understood support for seniors in the contemporary world. They indicate, in fact, the need to work on strengthening the individuation of seniors and their sense of autonomy. While the aging populations of economically developed countries are devoting large amounts of resources to quality health care, one can observe general trends of change that are not conducive to the other two factors that are predictors of well-being: autonomy and religiosity. Increasing globalization is fostering the homogenization of various dimensions of life, from the availability of the same goods and services around the world to the promotion of a uniform style of daily functioning based on universally applicable norms and regulations, which can significantly reduce the sense of autonomy (Chiu et al. 2011). Of course, this phenomenon has its positive dimension, as it allows the achievement of common goals, but at the same time, through the promotion of a “binding” hierarchy of values, it fosters a tendency toward the gradual loss of individual identity in favor of a collective one, which can lead to a reduction in the self-determination, distinctiveness, and autonomy of seniors (Li et al. 2024; Chiu et al. 2011; Ach and Pollmann 2022). Currently, secularization is on the rise in Europe, which means the marginalization of religion in public life and the promotion of views about the limitations on human development resulting from religion (Sadlon 2021). This can lead to a reduction of religious experience in the lives of individuals, an important resource for the well-being of seniors (Emmons et al. 1998; Masters et al. 2004).

The most important limitation of this study is Cronbach’s alpha for one subscale: the competence of The Seniors’ Motivation for Lifelong Education Questionnaire. It proved to be low. We assume that the items we developed for this subscale did not take into account the specific nature of the study group: seniors who are students of the Catholic University of the Third Age. The items did not sufficiently refer to competencies related to the acquisition of religious knowledge and its use in their lives. We included this subscale in the regression model explaining the level of well-being, but it turned out to be an insignificant variable, which may have been due to its low reliability. In discussing the results, we focused exclusively on variables that proved to be predictors of seniors’ well-being. We are aware of the weaknesses of this subscale and are working to improve it.

A key contribution of the present study is its simultaneous examination of multiple factors—religiosity, motivational needs, and seniors’ self-rated health—that may influence psychological well-being in older adults. However, the study’s limitations include the modest sample size and the gender imbalance among respondents, which precluded meaningful comparisons between male and female participants. Future research should therefore recruit a larger and more gender-balanced cohort. In our continued quest to identify predictors of successful aging, it will be important to assess whether engagement in University of the Third Age activities enhances seniors’ well-being. Accordingly, participants’ well-being will be re-evaluated after one year of enrollment. It will also be informative to compare outcomes among seniors attending secular Third Age Universities and those involved in other organized programs (e.g., senior day centers).

5. Conclusions

The results obtained—although based on a study conducted with a targeted sample of seniors attending the University of the Third Age at the Pontifical University of John Paul II—may offer valuable insights into how to support aging individuals in maintaining their psychological well-being for as long as possible. It is important to promote healthy lifestyles among seniors and, of course, to ensure access to adequate health care. Furthermore, it is advisable to create conditions that stimulate their need for autonomy and support their spiritual and religious development, particularly in the area of religious experience.