An Original Socialist Realist Novelist in the Context of the Approach to Religion in Modern Turkish Literature: Kemal Tahir

Abstract

Rationalist thought and positivism, as observed in various Eastern societies, led to significant upheavals in Turkish society concerning entrenched beliefs about the relationship between humanity and the world. These upheavals can be traced through the modernization efforts of the Tanzimat (Reorganization) period (between 1839 and 1896, the period of modernization and renewal in the Ottoman Empire). Although the initial generation of writers and poets during this period did not overtly renounce their connections to tradition, by the onset of the 20th century, a critical perspective towards traditional and religious content in both poetry and novels became evident. In its formative stages, Turkish socialist novels, which evolved under the influence of Russian socialism, were shaped by the classical Marxist interpretation of religion. Consequently, the socialist realist Turkish novel developed a more original character and distanced itself from stereotypical judgments. Kemal Tahir, who occupies a significant role in the realm of Turkish socialist novels, offers insights into the position and function of faith within society, as he transitioned from the classical Marxist paradigm towards a more original understanding. This study investigates the alterations in religious approaches during the Westernization process within Turkish literature and assesses the reflections of this transformation in the novels of Kemal Tahir (1910–1973), one of the preeminent figures of the socialist realist Turkish novel.

1. Introduction

The intellectuals in the Ottoman Empire (1299–1923), who accelerated their Westernization efforts after the Tanzimat (1839–1876), were influenced by Western ideas and ideologies due to close contact with Europe. As Ottoman intellectuals traveled to Europe and followed European publications, doctrines such as positivism, materialism, and rationalism began to attract interest among Turkish intellectuals. On the other hand, materialist and positivist works in the curricula of the schools of Medicine, Civil Service, and Military Education, which provide Western-style education, influence the intellectual landscape of the students graduating from these institutions. In particular, the strictly rationalist understanding of positivism, which emphasizes scientific knowledge and dismisses metaphysics, caused significant disruptions in Muslim Ottoman society, which had woven a metaphysically based belief system into all aspects of their lives. A similar situation emerged in the West, particularly during the Enlightenment, and later made its impact felt in Muslim countries.

According to Berna Moran, “The Westernization movement largely determines the problem of the Turkish novel until the 1950s. Westernization constitutes the main problem of the Turkish novel and significantly determines its function, organization, and types.” (Moran 2001, p. 24). Following the influence of socialist realist literature in the novel post-1950s, authors who critique capitalism adopt a Marxist framework as their foundation. In socialist realist Turkish novels, religion is predominantly portrayed through the lens of clergy members characterized by negative traits, and there exist very few socialist realist novels featuring a clergyman depicted in a positive light.

Although systems of thought such as materialism and positivism influenced the late Ottoman period, Western works arguing that religion prevented science faced criticism. In this context, Ottoman intellectuals wrote rebuttals to Ernest Renan’s L’Islamismé et la Science and J. William Draper’s History of the Conflict Between Religion and Science. Namık Kemal’s Renan Müdâfaanamesi (Defense Against Renan) and Ahmet Mithat’s Nizâ-ı İlm ü Dîn (The Conflict Between Science and Religion) stand out as significant works that challenge the view that religion hinders science (Taşdelen 2018, pp. 75–89). Additionally, the intellectual impact of positivism on Ottoman thinkers is noteworthy. For instance, Beşir Fuad (1852–1887) is regarded as the first Turkish positivist (Orhan 2019, p. 21), leaving a lasting mark on Turkish thought through his rebellion against metaphysics and his focus on science as the only reality. Conversely, the suicide of Beşir Fuad, notable in Turkish intellectual history for his positivist ideas, was interpreted by some Turkish intellectuals as a reflection of the crisis in thought and belief.

The Ottoman intellectuals who established close relations with Europe held conflicting views on religion. The religious and cultural capital of Islam, on the one hand, and the influence of Western secular thought, on the other, led to paradoxical attitudes. For instance, Şinasi (1826–1871), one of the founding figures of Turkish literature during the Westernization period, searches for God with his mind, not his heart, in his poem “Münâcat,” using the expression “I have to witness with my mind and logic that you are the only creator.” Conversely, Şinasi omits naat (Exalted poetry, the poems praising the Prophet Muhammad and expressing love and affection for him) in his divan, which is contrary to the tradition of Divan literature. Additionally, Şinasi’s one-act comedy, Şair Evlenmesi (Poets Marriage), contains a critical attitude towards the Muslim religious officials. The fact that Şair Evlenmesi was never performed while Şinasi was alive was partly due to a fear of public, religious, and political reactions. Although Tevfik Fikret (1867–1915), one of the poets from the Ottoman period, does not explicitly identify as a positivist, he demonstrates a positivist attitude with his belief that religion hinders science. In his poems “Tarih-i Kadim” (The Primitive Age), “Tarih-i Kadim’e Zeyl” (Addition to The Primitive Age), “İnanmak İhtiyacı” (The Need to Believe), and “Halûk’un Amentüsü” (Haluk’s Creed), he rejects historical and cultural memory, mystical metaphysical elements, traditions, and religions, emphasizing solely reason and science. In Tarih-i Kadim, Tevfik Fikret places science and reason above all else and aligns with positivism’s understanding of constructing a “religion of humanity.” In the poem “The Need to Believe,” Tevfik Fikret expresses the despair of being unable to find any subject to believe in.

In contrast, in the poem “Halûk’un Amentüsü,” the author embraces the universal spiritual values of humanity. According to Fikret, traditional religious values must be relinquished in order for society to overcome lethargy and establish a prosperous order. Consequently, a new order grounded in positivism would be instituted for all peoples of the world. This will be realized through “Prometheus,” who, akin to his Ancient Greek counterpart, bestows fire upon humanity. This time, Prometheus, who previously gave fire to the people, will provide electricity, symbolizing civilization. Despite the religious themes present in Fikret’s earlier poetry, his inclination towards a positivist and, at times, materialist perspective reflects his philosophical depth and the questioning of the prevailing conditions of the period, as well as the predominant tendencies among intellectuals (B. Kanter 2020, p. 136). Similar to Tevfik Fikret, Halit Ziya Uşaklıgil (1865–1945), Hüseyin Cahit (1875–1957), and Ahmet Şuayb (1876–1910), who were also associated with the Servet-i Fünûn community (between 1896 and 1901, the literary movement developed under Western influence by writers and poets gathered around the magazine Servet-i Fünûn), exhibited a dismissive attitude towards religion, influenced by their positivist ideologies. Halit Ziya Uşaklıgil, recognized as the founder of the modern Turkish novel, published a series of pocketbooks inspired by positivist thought prior to composing his novels. For instance, Mabhasü’l Kıhf (Craniology) is a work authored from a positivist standpoint. In Mabhasü’l Kıhf, Halit Ziya Uşaklıgil references the works of neuroanatomist Franz Joseph Gall and phrenologists Johann Spurzheim and Mariano Cubi y Soler. He omits any mention of religious life and values in his eight novels, with the exception of two distinct characters (Ünlü 2023, p. 85). This omission arises from the predominance of materialist elements within Uşaklıgil’s narratives. For the characters, concepts such as home, furniture, and decor symbolize their happiness (Kerman 1995, p. 186).

The National Literature period (between 1911 and 1923, the literary period in which nationalist and romantic tendencies were influential) artists who contributed to the intellectual foundations of the Republic of Turkey possessed a perspective on religion that diverged from traditional attitudes. Ziya Gökalp, a prominent figure in Turkish nationalism and a sociologist, articulated the new social order he envisioned through his literary works. In his poetry collection, Yeni Hayat (New Life), he explores a multitude of subjects, including language, morality, science, visual arts, economics, and the role of women in society. It is not coincidental that the title of the inaugural poem in Yeni Hayat is “Religion.” Ziya Gökalp asserts that religion represents one of the elements that ought to undergo transformation within Turkish sociology, given that religious values have historically influenced it for centuries. Within this framework, a conception of religion that transcends traditional spiritual beliefs emerges as a phenomenon encountered by Turkish society for the first time. In addressing religious authorities, Ziya Gökalp critiques religion as a tool of intimidation and advocates for its evolution based on principles of love, inclusivity, and acceptance.

The perspective that religion adversely affects both individuals and society has emerged as a prominent thematic element within Turkish literature, particularly post-Republic. Initially, with the establishment of the Republic (1923) and the adoption of secular attitudes during the nation-building process, and subsequently, with the growing influence of Marxism and socialist realism in Turkish literature, the discord between religion and science, as well as the exploitation of the public by clergy members utilizing religion, have increasingly become focal subjects in literary creations.

2. Religious Indicators as a Critical Attitude in Turkish Republican Era Novels

In Turkish literature of the Republican period, the exploitation of religion is scrutinized through the lens of manipulative, bigoted, hypocritical, and disloyal clergy members, as well as the ignorance pervasive among the populace. Within this framework, the spiritual architecture affected by superstitions, conflating fatalism with indolence, and straying from its fundamental essence, is critically examined. Consequently, religious motifs and the metamorphosis of religion into a mechanism of control are depicted through the actions of these manipulative clergy members and instances of spiritual exploitation. “In the literature that develops on the axis of the official ideology of the Republic, change, progress, and modernization are especially associated with the fictionalized teacher type; the notions of stagnation, loyalty to the old, and conservatism are mostly symbolized by the traditional clergy type” (Ete 2023, p. 100). The departure of religion from its core principles—due to misinterpretations and misunderstandings of religious rules by clergy—has extended beyond its intrinsic meanings and definitions, evolving into an entity that permeates the social structure. Those rules are often seen as an impediment by the community, constituting a recurring theme emphasized by Turkish intellectuals during the Republican period. Nevertheless, the founding intellectuals of the Republic primarily grappled not with religion per se, but with its contemporary manifestations, modes of practice, and the identity and portrayal of the clergy. Intellectuals who embraced the foundational ideology of the Republic but did not advocate for a complete renunciation of Islam as a religion opposed the distortion of religious principles, its transformation into an instrument of exploitation, and its misrepresentation (Ete 2023, p. 21). This perspective is distinctly reflected in the literary works of prominent early Republican novelists such as Yakup Kadri, Reşat Nuri, and Halide Edib.

From the perspective of Republican intellectuals concerning religion, a critique of the perception and practice of religion is paramount. In his novels and theatrical works, Reşat Nuri Güntekin condemns clergy members who exploit religion as a mechanism of control and utilize religious values to serve their interests. In Reşat Nuri Güntekin’s novel Yeşil Gece (The Green Night), madrasahs (the institutions that trained doctors, engineers, lawyers, and religious officials, among other members of the governing and political elite, in the Ottoman Empire), are regarded as the mediators of the practice and representation of religion and are subjected to criticism, and modern educational institutions are juxtaposed against those madrasahs. In the narrative of Yeşil Gece, particularly regarding the experiences at Somuncuoğlu Madrasah (an important madrasah located in Istanbul), the Muderrises (professors at the Madrasah) are depicted as narrow-minded individuals primarily driven by self-interest, who use religion as a tool to advance these interests. The central themes of the novel encompass the protagonist Ali Şahin’s crisis of doubt, his struggle with faith, and his epiphany regarding the exploitation of religion by individuals associated with Somuncuoğlu Madrasah. The narrative implicates the corruption within madrasas as being linked to the complacency and limited intellect of the clergy (M. F. Kanter 2019, p. 241). Furthermore, the perpetuation of superstitions within madrasas and the traditional clergy members who continuously transmit these superstitions into the future, alongside an incessant association of religion with damnation, are among the subjects addressed in socialist realist literature.

Halide Edib Adıvar is recognized as one of the writers who adopts a critical stance toward religion and critiques the transformation of religion into a mechanism of control. Halide Edib denounces clergy members who represent religion solely as an ominous, tormenting, and torturous concept, thereby establishing a fearful and oppressive religious framework. In her novel Vurun Kahpeye (Down with the Traitor), a typology of an ignorant, manipulative, traitorous, and malicious clergy member is constructed through the character of Hacı Fettah Efendi, who erroneously believes he can articulate the tenets of religion. Although the Mevlevi Dede of Istanbul is fictionalized in a more positive light, in contrast to Hacı Fettah in the novel, he remains relatively superficial and ambiguous within the plot. In another work, Sinekli Bakkal (The Grocer with Flies), Halide Edib portrays a Mevlevi (members of the Mevlevi Order, a Sufi order associated with the poet Rumi) who embodies a comprehensive humanity underscored by sentiments such as “humility,” “awe,” “love,” “heart,” and “affection,” in response to clergymen who intend to establish a control mechanism through religion and perceive themselves as its custodians. Within the narrative, which was initially published in English under the title “The Clown and His Daughter” and subsequently as Sinekli Bakkal, the imam, who propagates an oppressive view of religion through his alarming illustrations of hell, is countered by Mevlevi Vehbi Dede, who unveils a mystical understanding of religion, rooted in concepts such as love and heart. The dichotomy between the imam and the Mevlevi Grandfather in the novel recalls the contrast between Rind (A Sufi term meaning a person who does not see himself/herself as bound by any religious tradition or restriction and is content with Allah alone) and Zahid (A Sufi term meaning a person who abandons everything except Allah) found in Divan poetry. Just as the counterpart to the Zahid is the Rind, the counterpart to the imam (Islamic religious authority) in Halide Edib’s novel is Vehbi Dede, a member of the Mevlevi order. “The author, who seeks to influence the reader in favor of Vehbi Dede on every occasion, mentions his elegance, maturity, and wise personality that does not disturb his tranquility.” (Moran 2001, p. 159).

In Yakup Kadri Karaosmanoğlu’s novel Yaban (The Outsider), Sheik Yusuf Efendi, who deceives the villagers and presents himself as a holy figure, is depicted as an individual who exploits the populace through religious means. Conversely, the novel Küçük Ağa (The Little Agha), regarded as the antithesis of Yaban, is framed around a distinct category of clergy members, differing from the manipulative and hypocritical figures that have been prevalent as stereotypes in Turkish literature since Poets Marriage, the first literary work to mention the evil and corrupt character of religious figures. In The Little Agha, in contrast to the typology of the treacherous clergyman prevalent in early Republican novels, the protagonist is a patriotic cleric.

In the context of philosophical inquiries concerning religion and belief, the novel Gökyüzü (Sky) (Güntekin 1935) by Reşat Nuri Güntekin (1889–1956) (Güntekin 1935), a prominent writer of the Republican period, emerges as a significant work. The themes of the need to believe and the crisis of faith, which resonate with the experiences of intellectuals from the late Ottoman period, constitute pivotal issues within the narrative of Sky. The protagonist of the novel experiences an inherent need to believe as the doctrines of positivism reveal their inadequacy in addressing his existential concerns during his advanced years. Consequently, he finds himself ensnared in a struggle between empirical knowledge and faith (M. F. Kanter 2019, p. 335). The novel draws attention to expressions reminiscent of the verses from Tevfik Fikret’s poem “Tarih-i Kadim”: “People invented the tale of the sky to deceive and console themselves and each other. The fairy tale is so childish and primitive that it awakens the idea of criticism in people, but there is nothing to hold on to. At that time, we destroyed everything and became atheists.” (Güntekin 1935, p. 48). While Gökyüzü adeptly reflects the crisis of faith experienced by its atheist protagonist, it simultaneously presents the familiar narrative of the intellectuals from the final period of the Ottoman Empire, engaging with themes of existential dilemmas and the inherent need for belief. Additionally, this work is distinguished by its exploration of the concept of “faith” as portrayed in The Green Night, another novel written by Reşat Nuri Güntekin in earlier years, approached from a distinct perspective.

Refik Halit Karay’s novel Kadınlar Tekkesi (Women’s Lodge) also addresses the corruption of lodges through the character of Sheikh Baki Efendi, who utilizes religion for his personal interests. Sheikh Baki, who preys upon affluent and attractive women to satisfy his hedonistic desires through the recitation of Sufi poetry, contrasts with the manipulative clergy depicted in the novels of the early Republican period. Sheikh Baki is portrayed as an educated, modern cleric possessing a robust understanding of both Eastern and Western cultures. His disciples predominantly consist of wealthy, beautiful women from the upper social strata.

3. Critique of Religion in Socialist Realist Turkish Novels and the Works of Kemal Tahir

Socialist realist literature represents a significant literary movement that exerted considerable influence worldwide, particularly during the mid-20th century. This movement seeks to illuminate social issues and depict the lives and struggles of the working class through literary expression. Grounded in Marxist ideology, the movement engages primarily with social, political, and economic concerns rather than focusing on personal narratives. A distinct intention is evident in literary works that realistically portray challenges, such as economic exploitation, class conflict, injustices stemming from private property, poverty, and urbanization. The objective is to expose class struggles, illuminate the aspects neglected by the prevailing ideology, and instigate societal change through literature. Broadly, socialist realism emphasizes a literary approach that embodies this purpose across all artistic disciplines. Given its objective to enhance the political consciousness of the populace and to mobilize the proletarian uprising, which possesses a revolutionary mandate, works of socialist realism employ accessible language that resonates with the general public; thus, a lyrical, enigmatic, and symbolic style that conveys avant-garde or individual struggles is typically eschewed.

Following the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia in 1917, the interpretation of art that emerged under socialist realism regarded art as an instrument for disseminating revolutionary ideology (Özdemir 2013, p. 115). In 1932, this objective was solidified when socialist realism was declared the official art policy of the regime. Soviet communism perceived art as both a cultural movement and a political mission, and understanding was mandated to artists (Clark 2017, p. 20). Subsequently, art was tasked with reflecting and glorifying the ideals of workers, as well as the struggles of the oppressed and exploited classes for this cause. Equally significant is the aim to expose the colonialism perpetrated by capitalist elites—those who possess surplus power and control the mechanisms of authority. This social role of art, particularly in the literature, fundamentally serves as a critique of the capitalist system. Through this critique, the promises of the ideal order envisioned by communism are underscored, and a depiction of the social welfare it is expected to provide is elaborated.

The critique of capitalism, which has intensified alongside the emergence of socialist ideologies, encompasses the examination of religion as a pivotal determinant, along with all components that facilitate the perpetuation of the capitalist system. Numerous scholars have posited strong correlations between religion and capitalism in contemporary society. Weber (2005, p. 83) discusses Christianity, underscoring the belief that actions conducted in accordance with Protestant doctrine will bestow honor upon God. Sombart (2005, p. 215), highlighting the profound influence of Judaism shaped by the principles of profit and economic rationality, argues that Homo Capitalisticus aligns closely with Homo Judeus. These two theorists articulate the inherent relationship between these concepts.

Socialist realism represents a literary movement that has forged significant and robust connections with Marxist ideology. In this context, understanding the relationship between socialist realism and Marxism’s conceptualization of religion becomes paramount. According to Marxist thought, religion arises as a byproduct of class conflict throughout historical processes. Like art, law, and politics, religion serves as an ideological instrument employed by the ruling classes to safeguard and augment their interests. Achcar (2020, pp. 320–21) posits that, in truth, there is no comprehensive Marxist theory of religion. The primary rationale for this assertion is that religion constitutes a considerably more intricate phenomenon than political ideologies, rendering the theoretical frameworks advanced by Marx inadequate to elucidate this multifaceted aspect of religion. A thorough understanding of the religious phenomenon demands insights from all major social sciences, including anthropology, sociology, and psychoanalysis. In contrast, Marx’s examination of the topic is characterized more by disparate theoretical observations and metaphors than by a cohesive theory, the most notable of these being the analogy of “fetishism.”

Marx’s approach to religion can be characterized by three overlapping and mutually supportive arguments. Accordingly, religion serves as the source of alienation; it is classified as “false consciousness,” and it acts as an element that provides solace to the masses who are struggling against the adversities of life. In Marx’s understanding, the precedents of the thesis that religion is a manifestation of human alienation can be traced to Hegel and Feuerbach (Surin 2013, p. 9). In his book, The Essence of Christianity, Feuerbach asserts that in Judaism and Christianity, individuals attribute all virtuous and admirable qualities—such as love, wisdom, and beauty—to God, thereby creating God as a reflection of these attributes. This mode of thought has historically led humanity to disaster, as individuals become alienated from their true selves, believing they are devoid of these qualities. Consequently, Feuerbach (Ghosh 2017, pp. 121–22) fundamentally associates alienation with religious alienation. Feuerbach’s (1989, p. 26) statement, “To enrich God, man must become poor; that God may be all, man must be nothing,” resonates with Marx and Engels’s (1981, p. 38) assertion that “The struggle against religion is, therefore, indirectly the struggle against that world whose spiritual aroma is religion.” The Marxist perspective, which attributes a human-centered rather than a God-centered role to religion, perceives it as a reflection of material living conditions and an “illusion.” Therefore, the imperative is to liberate individuals from this illusion by critically examining religion through various means, including through literature. According to Marx (1975, p. 175), “The criticism of religion is the premise of all criticism.”

According to Karl Marx, religion is referred to as the “opium” of the people. This passage contains Marx’s well-known assertion within the context of his examination of religion: “Religious distress is simultaneously the expression of real distress and the protest against real distress. Religion is the sigh of the oppressed creature, the heart of a heartless world, just as it is the spirit of spiritless conditions. It is the opium of the people. To sublate religion as the illusory happiness of the people is to demand their real happiness. The demand to give up illusions about the existing state of affairs is the demand to give up a state that needs illusions. The criticism of religion is, therefore, in embryo, the criticism of the vale of tears, the halo of which is religion.” (Marx 1975, p. 175).

According to this understanding, religion serves to pacify individuals, enabling them to endure their suffering while deferring true salvation to the afterlife and inhibiting rebellion against the status quo. Conversely, religion is paradoxically characterized as a “protest” against suffering. This aspect has frequently been neglected in Marxist literature, as even Marx himself did not extensively explore the protest function of religion. In his interpretation of the duality inherent in religion, Rehmann (2011, p. 145) posits that if Marx intended to convey that religion is both the “sigh of the oppressed creature” and “the opium of the people,” then it is possible to develop a dialectical understanding of religion as a domain replete with conflict and contradictions, possessing the capacity to both mobilize and paralyze. Viewed in this manner, the responsibility of Marxists is to address the suffering of the exploited masses and to provide enlightenment by eradicating the illusory forms of religion.

A critical, distanced, and ideological perspective characterizes Marxism’s instrumental approach to religion. This approach aligns with the contemporary viewpoint rooted in a positivist worldview. The perspectives on religion articulated by thinkers who contributed to the emergence of modernity are consistent with those of Marx. For instance, while Nietzsche perceives religion as the foundation of slave morality (Nietzsche 2004, p. 12), Freud (Palmer 2006, p. 7) asserts that religion and science are fundamentally incompatible. According to Freud the dichotomy between them is so pronounced that every scientist must adopt atheism for the sake of logical consistency. Conversely, Durkheim (Pickering 2009, p. XX) emphasizes that religion is an institution that cannot be solely explained by social phenomena; rather, it holds sufficient significance to elucidate the social phenomena Religion, which historically unified society and facilitated collective belief during the classical period, and has subsequently fostered collective disbelief owing to the conditions of modern life, as Certeau discusses in his article “Believing and Making People Believe” (Yağcıoğlu 2008, p. 81).

Marx offers a profound and radical critique of religion. He posits that religion is “equated with atheism, and atheism is equated with a host of political connotations” (Steedman 2020, p. 2). This perspective, which equates religion and atheism, also affirms a social structure entirely divorced from all religious beliefs. “He states bravely and radically that the condition of the society cannot be better when religion still exists” (Latief 2011, p. 260). The Marxist opposition to religion and the endeavor to entirely extricate it from societal frameworks is intertwined with the conviction that religious propositions should be regarded merely as sophistry and superstition within the enlightened consciousness of the modern individual.

In socialist realist literature, religion is typically subjected to scrutiny and criticism by Marxist principles, being perceived as a factor that obstructs the development and advancement of society. Marx viewed religion as a manifestation of a deeper affliction, describing it as the consequence of a societal condition in which humanity “has not yet found himself or has already lost himself again” (Lobkowicz 1964, p. 319). This literary movement seeks to supplant the prevailing religious ideology within society with an enlightened and materialistic perspective. Within this framework, socialist realist authors critique religion as an apparatus that inhibits individuals from achieving class consciousness. An important aspect of this critique is the depiction of religious institutions and clergy members in the narratives of socialist realist novels; they are characteristically presented as reactionary, conservative, prejudiced, and manipulative figures who do not hesitate to exploit the populace for their interests and to manipulate individuals for such ends. Morson (1979, pp. 121–22) delineates six primary characteristics that distinguish socialist realist novels from their Western or pre-revolutionary Russian counterparts, particularly noting the simplistic and two-dimensional representation of protagonists, as opposed to the intricate psychological constructions found in Western literature. Additional qualities highlighted by Morson include the presence of a plot with a specific formulation, where the function of each component is predetermined, a focus on social rather than individual themes, the employment of exaggerated rhetoric consistently laced with political significance, the absence of irony, and the conclusion with an optimistic, joyful, and constructive ending.

In socialist realist novels, the narratives, which are approached with a dialectical understanding through dichotomies such as science versus religion, scientific endeavor versus religious bigotry, and freedom versus dependence, are constructed within a template framework. This conventional functioning aims to liberate individuals from the pacifying influence of religion while fostering class consciousness. The primary method for achieving this objective involves facilitating, at least in theory, society’s independence from religion and the detrimental impact of religious values. The characters, plot, temporal, and spatial dimensions of socialist realist novels are consistently organized to fulfill this aim. The conflict between socialist realism and religion is rooted in the ideological belief that religion contributes to the exploitation of the populace. Religious beliefs are particularly pervasive among the lower social classes, and the religious practices stemming from these beliefs are dismissed as the reasons for their adoption of a fatalistic outlook and their passive acceptance of authority. Socialist realism categorically rejects these religious beliefs and practices, interpreting them as manifestations of a primitive understanding and a subservient existence. Nonetheless, this reality is portrayed in socialist literature as an issue to be addressed rather than as an accepted norm. In this perspective, religion is viewed as a component of the class structure within society, rather than merely an individual belief system.

The foundational orientations of socialist realist novels within Turkish literature align closely with Marxist principles. Noting that the prevailing sentiment towards religion is predominantly negative in the novels from the early period of the Republic (1923–1940), Güler (2018, p. 934) posits that the authors of this era attribute the decline of societal values to the religious education prevalent during the Ottoman Empire, which lacked a scientific perspective. In addition to this overarching trend, certain writers within Turkish literature interpret the Enlightenment thesis in a contrary manner, contending that it is not religion that corrupts society, but rather the positivist worldview (Hüküm 2023, p. 469).

Among Turkish socialist realist writers was Kemal Tahir, born in 1910 in Istanbul, whose real name was İsmail Kemalettin. He was the son of Tahir Bey, a naval captain and one of Abdülhamid II’s (the 34th Sultan of the Ottoman Empire) aides. Tahir’s childhood was spent during the mobilization and the National Struggle. He commenced his journalism career after gaining experience as a lawyer’s clerk and a warehouse clerk. Throughout his career, he was associated with various publications, including the Vakit (Time), Haber (News), Son Posta (Last Post), Karagöz (Black Eyed), and Tan (Dawn) newspapers, as well as the Yedigün (Seven Day) and Karikatür (Cartoon) magazines, where he held multiple roles such as secretary, translator, copy editor, interview writer, editor-in-chief, and editor.

Kemal Tahir’s initial significant venture into the literary realm was with the magazine Geçit (Passage) (1933–1934), which he co-published alongside Yakup Sabri, Ertuğrul Şevket, İsmail Safa, and Arif Nihat Asya. At the commencement of his literary career, Tahir contributed social-themed poetry to the Varlık and Ses magazines under the pseudonyms Cemalettin Mahir and İsmail Kemalettin. However, his encounter with Nazım Hikmet in 1929 profoundly impacted his choice to forgo poetry in favor of novel writing. This influence is also evident in Tahir’s alignment with Marxist ideology and the evolution of his artistic perspective within this context. On 19 May 1938, he was sentenced to 15 years of heavy imprisonment alongside Nazım Hikmet for inciting soldiers to mutiny during the naval case that arose following the attempted mutiny on the battleship Yavuz. After serving his sentence in Çankırı, Çorum, and Malatya prisons, he was released under the general amnesty of 1950. During his imprisonment, Tahir made significant observations regarding his novelistic endeavors and gained an intimate understanding of the Anatolian people. This material, which serves as the foundation of his literary work, derives from his experiences with human and social structures and is expertly woven into his novels with his distinctive style.

Kemal Tahir adopts a distinctive approach to religion in certain respects. Although a straightforward analysis of his fictional texts aligns him with socialist realist authors such as Orhan Kemal, Yaşar Kemal, Fakir Baykurt, and Sabahattin Ali, the notions espoused by Kemal Tahir that diverge from classical Marxism manifest subtly within the backdrop of some of his novels. As one of the prominent representatives of socialist realist literature, Kemal Tahir deviates from classical Marxist ideologies, particularly in several arguments articulated in his theoretical writings. Nevertheless, Kemal Tahir’s biography encompasses significant information that elucidates his relationship with Marxism. He articulates his defense of Marxist ideology through his comprehensive worldview. In this context, his depiction of religion in his early novels adheres closely to this ideological framework. His predisposed perspective towards religion is centered on the Marxist assertion that religion serves as an “opium” that dulls the reflexes of society. Within the parameters of classical Marxism, the comprehension of religion—akin to other ideological apparatus rooted in economic relations and class struggle—is encapsulated within Tahir’s novels as it is transmuted into fictive form. Tahir provides a pointed critique of the structure of Ottoman Turkish society, which he endeavors to correlate with this classical paradigm in his annotations:

Tahir (Notes 10, pp. 24–25) noted that since Ottoman society did not achieve a comprehensive understanding, public relationships with religion manifested as an attempt to evade the truth and instead seek refuge within it. Society intertwined religion with quotidian, superficial interests. Although he had no affiliation with metaphysics, he emphasized the marvelous, the supernatural, the surreal, and the extraordinary over the actual; indeed, even in his daily existence, he anticipated miracles to manifest from external sources. This tendency cultivated his indolence. Given the limited engagement of the Ottomans with religion, they readily conformed to various belief systems.

The protagonists in the novel, fictionalized in alignment with this understanding, are characterized as manipulative, hypocritical, and mercenary individuals who incorporate certain religious practices into their daily lives, yet exhibit inconsistency by engaging in immoral actions. Individuals who utilize these religious practices to obscure their transgressions and conceal them corrupt society by leveraging religious values. Prominent among such characters in Tahir’s oeuvre are Osman The Hackman, who prays while simultaneously engaging in sodomy in The Prisoner of Captive City; Zekeriya Hodja, who consistently reads the Koran and dispenses religious guidance to those within his proximity while exploiting Kâmil Bey; and Çalık Kerim, who transforms into a thief following his initial religious training in The Hunchback of the Village. In The Hunchback of the Village, Tall Imam, the imam of the village, incites the villagers to lynch Parpar Ahmet, who, afflicted with syphilis, returns to his community after years of expatriation. The novel assesses religion from a strict realist perspective, portraying it as a violent phenomenon that transforms the populace into bloodthirsty murderers; in this dystopian narrative, religion, illicit sexuality, and violence coexist cyclically. Within this context, the critique of various forms of immorality prevalent in madrasahs, where religious education is administered, is among the topics examined in The Hunchback of the Village. Conversely, Çalık Kerim, the protagonist in the narrative, cultivates a mystical persona due to his hunchback, generates income by traversing various villages under the guise of a religious figure, and exploits the religious sentiments of the populace, in harmony with Marxism’s interpretation of religion. In The Prison Boss, The Women’s Ward, and The Honest Ones, discourses that feature strong religious opposition in accordance with Marxist ideology are likewise prevalent. This perspective, propagated under the influence of Nazım Hikmet, is entirely consistent with the classical Marxist framework regarding religion and social issues such as family, land ownership, and economics.

The overarching theme in these novels presents religion as a corrupting force, ultimately yielding to the authority of the state. This perspective is clearly articulated through the protagonist Kâmil Bey, who reflects on the call to prayer, “Hayye all-fellah! (Come to salvation!)” in the novel The People of the Captive City when he questions, “Does it seem appropriate to call people to salvation by prostrating in a captive city?”. In The Tired Warrior, religion is depicted as an impediment to progress, highlighting a parallel between the Marxist critique of religion and the tenets of positivism. Furthermore, in The Tired Warrior, the transformation of a mosque into a den of filth by a mosque trustee during the occupation period scrutinizes the role of religious identities and their capacity to adversely affect societal dynamics. Throughout these narratives, Tahir adopts a critical perspective on the exploitation of the populace by religious institutions, thereby addressing the broader issue of the instrumentalization of religion.

The practice of religion that stagnates and inhibits social consciousness is depicted as a social problem in the novels. Tahir engages in the critical examination of religion not through its particular attributes but rather in terms of how it is experienced within collective perception and practice. For instance, in the novel The Seed in the Steppe, the villagers are criticized for participating in religious activities solely out of imitation or for secular interests, without comprehending their true essence. The primary reason that religiously inclined characters are portrayed as morally weak collaborators, traitors, and bigots is that they “use” religion to fulfill their political or economic agendas. In the novel Rain Blocked the Way, the Alevi Grandfather Kasım, who exploits the villagers through his religious authority, exemplifies how the amalgamation of religious title and economic power within a single individual facilitates the exploitation of society. The characters who enrich themselves by leveraging their religious authority as a form of capital within the economic cycle signify the grave implications of the intertwining relationship between capital, religion, and politics.

Religion is the central phenomenon that determines the dynamics between men and women in Tahir’s novels. For example, in The Deaf Stream, Lame İsmail declines to engage in sexual intercourse with the woman accompanying him to collect firewood, as he is fasting and wishes to maintain his fast. The woman’s ridicule of Lame İsmail’s stance illustrates the testing of male–female relations through the lens of religion. Furthermore, in nearly all the novels, the repressive dimensions of religion are underscored alongside concepts such as sexuality, honor, and dignity. This collective perception of religion obstructs the spiritual development of individuals. The entrenchment of religion within the social structure in a dogmatic and status quo manner deprives individuals of the agency to make rational decisions that could significantly influence their lives. Such helplessness constitutes the primary reason individuals persist in living as downtrodden and miserable, oscillating between trivial emotions and fundamental economic necessities.

Kemal Tahir sees the close relationship between religion and authority as a factor that enables the exploitation of Anatolian peasants. In the novel Kelleci Memet, the protagonist ascribes his oppression to a deficiency in education and contends that the interplay of religion and authority is employed to exploit him. This cycle of exploitation profoundly impacts the Anatolian peasant, resulting in a barren consciousness, a life devoid of personal agency, idleness, and inertia, which begins with disillusionment and ultimately compels him to surrender his life to those in power as a soulless vessel. Tahir’s perspective on religion experiences a partial transformation solely in his later novels, a change that remains moderate owing to his profound explorations of Sufism. He emphasizes the necessity to indigenize leftist thought with the assertion, “We must return from Marx to the country” (Tahir, Notes 13, p. 384), indicating a gradual shift in his indigenous perspective towards religion. The failure of the proletarian revolution, as anticipated by Marx, to materialize in Europe has engendered disappointment within left-wing intellectual circles, a sentiment with which Tahir aligns himself. In Russia, for analogous reasons, two distinguished literary figures, Dostoevsky and Tolstoy, endeavored to reconcile mystical piety with the working class (Weber 2012, pp. 250–51). Similarly, Kemal Tahir commenced an inquiry within the framework of Sufism’s conceptual universe. The evidence of this orientation is apparent in various episodes of his novels.

In The Women’s Ward, Murat, the journalist and protagonist, provides counsel to a woman who neglects her maternal responsibilities by indulging in rampant sexuality without regard for the appropriate conditions for prayer. He asserts that prayer will safeguard her from malevolence and a life of excess. Murat, the journalist who serves as a representation of Kemal Tahir within the narrative, elucidates the importance and value that the author ascribes to the positive functions of religion.

Kemal Tahir’s later approach to religion, unlike his previous approaches, is influenced by a historical and social perspective, and is most clearly articulated in his novel Mother State. In this work, the author posits that religion served a significant function in establishing order and legitimizing authority during the formation of the Ottoman Empire. Within this context, he ascribes a positive historical mission to religion. He regards religion as an organizing principle within social life, displaying a balanced and rational approach. He underscores the impact of religious tolerance permeating society on the foundation and perpetuation of the Ottoman Empire. The figure of Yunus Emre, who integrates into the political structure by setting aside his grievances towards Ertuğrul Bey due to the Baba Ilyas rebellion, exemplifies that religion is perceived merely as a supplementary sociological phenomenon from the state’s perspective. In this light, religion is positioned as a support for the state rather than a source of oppression. For Kemal Tahir, religion is not viewed as a domain of divine values that will be rewarded in the afterlife in accordance with faith principles; rather, it is regarded as a factor that bolsters the social fabric in the terrestrial realm. Religion is validated beyond mere belief, grounded in its role as social mortar, as illustrated in Mother State.

In the “Dream” episode in the same novel, the political function of religion is legitimized within this context of social mortar. Osman Bey’s dream, depicting the moon emerging from Sheikh Edebali’s chest and entering his own, is not attributed to a supernatural phenomenon by the author; instead, the dream is rationally fictionalized as a justification for a political decision. Following this dream, Sheikh Edebali, who had previously declined to bestow his daughter upon Osman Bey, alters his stance. In the same narrative, heterodox elements, such as Alevi-Bektashi groups—distinct from the Sunni interpretation of Islam—are incorporated as components that shape and reinforce Anatolia’s identity consciousness. These elements are reconciled with the system by being assimilated into the practice of Islam as Anatolian Islam. In this regard, the figure of the dervish “Kamagan,” who embodies both a shaman and a dervish, the characterization of Yunus Emre as a figure so secular that he consumes wine, and Muslim youth marrying Christian girls, represent fictional choices that can be interpreted as “deviations” from the official Islamic doctrine. As an endeavor towards hybridization, these choices arise from the author’s ambition to portray a superior religious structure transcending heterodoxy.

Tahir’s principal thesis posits that the application of Western Marxist frameworks to analyze Eastern societies is fundamentally flawed. According to Hüküm (2017, pp. 70–99), Marxism characterizes the Ottoman Empire as a nomadic, tribal authority rooted in tribal affiliations, as a classical religious state, and as a stagnant society defined by a “plundering” order. Kemal Tahir critiques and repudiates these prevailing definitions by integrating them into fictional narratives, particularly in his novel “Mother State”. He further critiques the Marxist interpretation of religion from a similar vantage point. According to Tahir, in Western contexts, religion functions as a mechanism of oppression for the feudal order and has substantially diminished in influence following the bourgeois revolutions. Conversely, in Eastern societies, religion transcends mere ideological superstructure; it acts as an organizing principle that unifies society. Tahir posits that “true religion (regardless of its specific nature) serves as a value that unites individuals, whereas Marxism overlooks the significance of religion in cultural life and its autonomous influence on the psychological state of each individual.” (Hüküm 2017, p. 88). While Tahir assesses society and history through a Marxist lens, he contextualizes the role of religion within social frameworks more historically and locally. Within this paradigm, Kemal Tahir does not regard religion solely as an “opium”; he asserts that it occupies a central position, particularly in the Ottoman Turkish social framework, functioning both as an ideological apparatus and as a pivotal aspect of everyday life. Religion is an essential determinant of the manner in which individuals perceive the world and structure their daily routines. As Tahir asserts, failing to acknowledge this reality, which necessitates religious beliefs, leads to a disconnect from the populace. By highlighting the societal functions of religion in his works, he adopts a critical but non-adversarial stance towards it. In contrast to classical Marxism, which unconditionally embraces religion, he conducts an examination of the unconscious rituals that permeate individuals’ lives, along with the superstitious foundations upon which they are based. He employs a discourse that contests the fatalism associated with religion, which does not critique the existing social order nor have a constructive impact on individual morality. He argues that any analysis of society that neglects to consider the historical and cultural significance of religion is lacking in realism. Tahir also denounces the intellectual stance that dismisses and entirely negates the religious values of the populace as factors that contradict revolutionary consciousness. Furthermore, he asserts that a genuine connection with individuals cannot be achieved without understanding the role of religion in social life. In conclusion, he emphasizes the social function of religion.

Tahir (Notes 13, pp. 290–91) emphasizes that Islam is seen as the final religion, marked by its contemporary relevance and greater strength compared to other faiths. According to him, its impact on Muslims is profound, and as a global religion, Islam engages actively in international affairs and has established comprehensive economic and social frameworks. It encourages scientific inquiry and has implemented family law. In addition, it opposes the private ownership of natural resources, including land, water, and forests. Islam forbids practices such as gambling and alcohol consumption. It also rejects superstition and witchcraft, and prohibits indulgence in luxury, ostentation, excessive interest, and cannibalism. For these and similar reasons, the organization of Islam is democratic in nature.

While Kemal Tahir critiques the intellectual perspective that seeks to adapt the positivist interpretation of religion to Turkish society, he simultaneously challenges the Marxist understanding that underpins this viewpoint by asserting that “it is not a valid sociological method for Anatolian people and soil” (Hüküm 2017, p. 77). In this regard, Tahir, embodying an indigenous Marxist perspective, posits that only a Marxism grounded in indigenous content can be reconciled with the realities of Turkish society. The profound roots of religion within the collective memory necessitate its examination as a phenomenon of social construction.

4. Conclusions

Since the Tanzimat period (1839–1896), the role of religion within the fabric of social life has been a topic of intensive scrutiny undertaken by intellectuals; furthermore, the transformation of religion into a mechanism for exploitation by manipulative individuals has encountered substantial criticism. In this context, positivism has emerged as a significant force in the historical development of Turkish thought. While conservative intellectuals argued that the assertions of positivism concerning religion’s obstruction to progress were erroneous, positivist thought commenced its extension of influence. In addition to Beşir Fuad, various artists affiliated with the Servet-i Fünûn movement (1896–1901) were also significantly affected by positivist ideals. The novels produced under the auspices of the prevailing ideology and subsequent reforms following the establishment of the Republic critique the control exerted by religion over individuals, primarily through the depiction of manipulative, hypocritical, and mercenary clergy. By the 1950s, socialist realist literature, particularly as manifested in village novels, had established a wide sphere of influence. Within these narratives, religion is integrated into fiction through a Marxism-oriented perspective. Prominent authors such as Sabahattin Ali, Orhan Kemal, Kemal Tahir, Yaşar Kemal, and Talip Apaydın investigate the ramifications of religion on the individual, presenting adverse examples in their works that correspond with Marxist principles.

In the literary works of Kemal Tahir, religion assumes a historical role in the organization of society, as evidenced in Mother State. Conversely, when religion is manipulated, as illustrated in novels such as The Tired Warrior, The Hunchback of the Village, The Prisoner of the Captive City, and Rain Blocked the Way, or when it stands in opposition to the modernization process, as seen in the novel The Seed in the Steppe, it becomes a focal point for the author’s critique. Throughout his oeuvre, Kemal Tahir refrains from condemning religiosity through the lens of a classical Marxist framework; instead, he critiques the dogmatism and self-serving employment of religion and religious identities. His perspectives on Islam, articulated in his notes from Socialism, Society, and Truth, indicate that he does not subscribe to classical Marxism but rather aligns with an indigenous form of Marxism. In these notes, Tahir asserts that Islam is more robust and contemporary than other religions, emphasizes the establishment of economic and social systems through a focus on worldly affairs, and does not oppose the advancement of science.

Conversely, he underscores that Islam does not condone the ownership of public capital, prohibits vices that precipitate individual and social calamities, such as alcohol consumption and gambling, and promotes social inclusivity while eschewing superstition, witchcraft, ostentation, arrogance, usury, and injustice. Drawing from these commendable principles, Kemal Tahir posits that religion exerts a genuine and influential effect on societal life. This perspective situates him within a sincere and localized framework, distinct from the Marxist viewpoint that endeavors to eliminate religion from all facets of existence.