Christian Missionary Interpreters in the Open Port Period and the Japanese Colonial Era and Church Interpretation in Modern Korea

Abstract

This study examines the role of Christian missionary interpreters from the Open Port Period to the Japanese colonial era, highlighting their historical significance and influence. During the Open Port Period, missionaries relied on Korean language teachers to serve as interpreters, translators, evangelists, and preachers. Although their English proficiency was often limited, they played a crucial role in early Christian missions. In the Japanese colonial era, elite intellectuals who had studied abroad increasingly assumed interpretation roles, actively contributing to theological education and social reform. This study analyzes historical records, newspaper articles, and existing research to reconstruct the evolving role and broader impact of Christian interpreters. The findings suggest that missionary interpreters were not merely linguistic mediators but key figures in evangelism and social transformation. Furthermore, the study highlights the historical transition from consecutive interpretation to simultaneous interpretation in Korean churches and underscores the need for systematic training programs. Given the growing linguistic diversity in Korean congregations, churches must recognize the importance of trained interpreters in ensuring effective multilingual worship and uphold the legacy of missionary interpretation.

1. Introduction

In the late 19th century, Western Christian missionaries’ activities began in Korea. At that time, Korean society was divided between factions advocating for engagement with Western powers and the adoption of advanced civilization, and those who were wary of the West and sought to preserve traditional values. Despite this divide, Christianity gradually took root in Korean society. During the Japanese colonial period (1910–1945), Christianity played a pivotal role in the independence movement. Additionally, Christian missions provided Koreans with access to modern education and medical care, contributing significantly to Korea’s modernization. However, it is important to acknowledge that the missionary activities of this period were, to an extent, influenced by the broader dynamics of Western imperialism.

From a religious perspective, Korea had long maintained a traditional Eastern religious culture centered on indigenous beliefs, Buddhism, and Confucianism. However, within a mere century of its introduction, Christianity transformed Korea into a prominent missionary sending nation. According to the Korea Research Institute for Missions (KRIM 2024), 21,917 long-term Korean missionaries were serving in 174 countries as of the end of 2023, marking a globally significant success in missionary outreach.

Meanwhile, the proportion of foreign residents in Korean society has been steadily increasing. According to immigration statistics from the Ministry of Justice (n.d.), foreigners accounted for 4.89% of the total population as of 2023, a figure that rose to 5.2% in 2024. By category, international students increased by 16.5% year-on-year by the end of 2024, work-visa holders by 8.5%, marriage immigrants by 3.7%, and permanent residents (F-5 visa holders) by 9.5%. Given these demographic shifts, the Korean church must now extend its focus beyond overseas missions to outreach efforts toward migrant communities within Korea. In this context, S.-i. Shin (2023, p. 411) highlighted emerging migrant missions as a new paradigm and emphasized the need for systematic and specialized approaches to ministry.

In response to these developments, many Korean churches have begun providing simultaneous interpretation services during Sunday worship. These services are offered in multiple languages, including English, Japanese, and Chinese. For example, the Daniel Prayer Meeting (Daniel Prayer Meeting Steering Committee 2024), a three-week annual event held in November at a megachurch in Seoul, is broadcast live with simultaneous interpretation provided in Japanese, both in-person and online. As of 2024, 16,549 churches in Korea and 697 churches across 111 countries participate in this event.

This study seeks implications for modern church interpretation from examining interpreters who played a critical role in Christian mission fields from the late 19th century (the opening of Korea) through the Japanese colonial period. In the early stages of Christian missionary work in Korea, interpreters were indispensable, as Western missionaries lacked Korean language proficiency, and most Koreans did not understand English. However, historical records documenting these interpreters’ activities remain scarce. The absence of records is not surprising, given that interpreters are often overlooked even in major historical events. Nevertheless, analyzing the role of interpreters in Christian missions remains a significant and worthwhile research endeavor. To address this gap, this study compiles references to interpreters found in various sources, including scholarly articles, newspaper reports, diaries, and magazines, to provide a historical reconstruction of their roles and contributions. By shedding light on the oft-neglected role of Christian interpreters during the opening of the Korean Peninsula and the Japanese occupation, this article aims to provide a new perspective on missionary studies.

Accordingly, this research is guided by the following two primary questions:

^1. 

What were the roles, influence, and historical characteristics of Christian interpreters in Korea from the Open Port Period to the Japanese colonial era?

^2. 

Based on this historical analysis, what recommendations can be made regarding the direction of interpretation in the contemporary Korean church?

The research method employed historical documents, newspaper articles, diaries, magazines, and other written material of the period. Since it was difficult to confirm the historical situation of Christian interpreters using only primary sources, secondary sources—including scholarly analyses and more recent newspaper articles discussing the Japanese colonial period—were also examined to supplement the limited firsthand records. However, records of interpreters in public documents were scarce; consequently, newspaper articles were actively perused, and when quoting from them, an efficient manner of presentation, involving excerpting or summarizing key content, was adopted.

The structure of this paper is as follows. Section 2 provides an overview of Christianity in colonial Korea, offering the necessary historical background. Section 3 examines the interpreters who assisted missionaries during the Open Port Period, while Section 4 considers those who were active during the Japanese colonial period. Section 5 synthesizes key findings and discusses their implications for interpretation practices in the contemporary Korean church. Finally, Section 6 presents the study’s conclusions.

The dedication of Western missionaries played a crucial role in establishing Christianity in Korea, and today, Korea has become one of the world’s leading missionary sending nations. Historically, interpreters have served as essential intermediaries, bridging the gap between Western missionaries and Korean converts. As Korean churches increasingly engage in missions not only abroad but also among foreign communities in Korea, their approach to church interpretation must be carefully reconsidered. By examining the historical role of Christian interpreters during Korea’s modernization, this study aims to contribute to discussions on the future direction of interpretation within the contemporary Korean church.

2. Christianity in Colonial Korea

Christianity was introduced to Korea in the late 19th century by Western missionaries, who not only engaged in spreading the gospel but also contributed to the modernization of Korean society by establishing schools and hospitals. During the Japanese occupation (1910–1945), Christianity had a profound impact on Korean society, providing hope and comfort to many.

In 1910, Japan forcibly annexed Korea and established the Joseon Government-General to exert colonial rule. The Japanese authorities imposed strict control over language, culture, politics, economy, education, and religion. Despite these restrictions, a widespread expectation prevailed in Korean society that Christianity would contribute to independence and social development (J. S. Kim 2014, p. 40). This was largely because of the perception that Christianity would provide educational opportunities regardless of social status and gender, introduce Western-style medical care, and serve as a conduit for informing the international community about Korea’s condition.

Although education during the Japanese occupation was viewed as a means of fostering national capability for eventual liberation, the educational environment was severely limited, and Japan systematically suppressed Korean education. However, the schools established by missionaries played a crucial role in the development of Korean education (J. S. Kim 2014, pp. 44–45). These schools significantly contributed to the expansion of women’s education and the training of independence activists. Despite continuous oppression under Japan’s colonial education policies, many independence leaders were educated in missionary-founded institutions. Additionally, missionaries played a role in directly or indirectly supporting the independence movement and bringing international awareness to Korea’s struggle for sovereignty.

Medical missions were also a fundamental part of Protestant missionary efforts in Korea, with many Koreans encountering Christianity through medical treatment (J. S. Kim 2014, p. 41). Missionaries introduced modern medical practices and improved Korea’s poor healthcare conditions by preventing and treating infectious diseases while also offering free or low-cost medical services to the general population. Although Christian hospitals faced operational constraints due to Japanese medical regulations, they continued to have a lasting influence on Korea’s medical system even after liberation.

Meanwhile, the Joseon Government-General viewed Christianity in colonial Korea as an entity to be suppressed and controlled (Government-General of Chōsen 1914, pp. 4–5). In the long term, Japanese authorities sought to consolidate religious influence over Korea through Japanese religious organizations. As part of this effort, the Japanese Congregational Church (日本組合教会), which actively cooperated with the colonial authorities and aggressively promoted missions aligned with imperial policies, received considerable institutional support from the Joseon Government-General (J.-h. Kim 2023, p. 77). The Japanese Congregational Church, a denomination formed in late 19th-century Japan, actively engaged in evangelism in Korea by establishing missionary outposts. Despite Japan’s claim of maintaining the separation of church and state, the denomination aligned itself with Japan’s imperial expansion and collaborated with colonial administrators. However, its missionary efforts were largely unsuccessful due to strong resistance from Korean Christians.

By the mid-1910s, Japan attempted to exert greater control over Christianity by imposing strict regulations on churches. The colonial authorities required churches to obtain permits for establishment; obstructed revival meetings, prayer gatherings, and Sunday services; and dispatched officials to scrutinize and interfere with sermons (K.-j. Kim 2010, p. 60). Although Japan formally upheld the principle of the separation of church and state, it effectively exercised control over Christianity and religious institutions.

On March 1, 1919, the March 1st Independence Movement erupted. This was a non-violent movement for independence, involving widespread participation across various social classes. While not directly led by religious groups, the Korean Church played a pivotal role in organizing and sustaining the movement. The Korean Christian community provided not only the ideological motivation for the movement but also an extensive network essential for its expansion (E.-k. Park 2019, p. 180). The movement was particularly active in Pyongyang and South Pyongan Province, where students from the Pyongyang Soongsil School played a significant role in spreading the protests throughout the region (Hwang 2013, p. 108). This can be attributed to the strong missionary presence and high concentration of Christian educational institutions in the area.

The Japanese authorities suspected missionary involvement in the March 1st Movement and responded with severe repression. The Joseon Government-General ordered raids on the residences of prominent Western missionaries in Pyongyang, arrested them, subjected them to trials, and in some cases, expelled them from Korea (Hwang 2013, pp. 108–9). Many missionaries, either directly or indirectly, supported the independence movement, despite the risk of expulsion by the Japanese authorities.

Following the March 1st Movement, Japan shifted its governance strategy from military rule (武斷統治) to cultural rule (文化統治) in an attempt to pacify anti-colonial resistance and ensure a more stable administration. This shift also aimed to mitigate growing international criticism, particularly from Western Christian circles. However, despite the outward rhetoric of cultural governance, actual improvements in Korean civil rights were minimal, and by the 1930s, Japan had intensified its religious suppression policies.

Beginning in the early 1930s, Japan aggressively promoted State Shintoism and forced Christian private schools and public schools to participate in Shinto shrine worship (S.-t. Kim 2006, p. 225). This policy deepened the conflict between the Christian community and Japanese authorities, leading to widespread persecution of Christians who refused to comply.

According to Seo (2007, pp. 172–73), Korea presents a unique case in the history of Christian expansion in the 19th and 20th centuries, as Koreans had more freedom in accepting Christianity compared to other mission-receiving countries, particularly in relation to ethnic issues. In terms of geographical expansion, the initial phase of missionary activity was primarily concentrated in the southern regions of Korea, particularly around Seoul, before gradually expanding northward to areas such as Pyongyang and Hwanghae Province by the early 20th century.

Unlike other colonial contexts, wherein missionary and colonial authorities were closely aligned, Korean churches faced no fundamental contradiction in participating in national liberation movements (E.-k. Park 2019, pp. 157–58). Under Japanese rule, many Koreans engaged in peaceful resistance for independence, enduring sacrifices and even martyrdom. However, these efforts did not immediately overturn Japanese colonial rule. Eventually, it was Japan’s defeat in World War II that led to Korea’s liberation in 1945. Given the significant contributions of missionaries, Christian educational institutions, and medical missions, the role of Korean Christianity in the independence movement and social progress remains an essential subject of historical inquiry.

3. Interpreters for Missionaries in the Open Port Period

3.1. Early Missionary Korean Teachers

Early missionaries who arrived in Korea in the late 19th century prioritized learning the Korean language to effectively convey the gospel. Communication in English was extremely limited, to the extent that even formal diplomatic negotiations required triple translation (Jung-hee Jeon 2012). This situation led to the establishment of English-language educational institutions. In 1883, Korea’s first modern private school, Wonsan Academy, was founded and began teaching English. In the same year, Dongmunhak, the first modern vocational school, began training English interpreters. Following the closure of Dongmunhak in 1886, Yukyeonggongwon, a modern public school, commenced English education for the children of high-ranking officials, marking the beginning of systematic English education in Korea (N. Ahn 2021, p. 37). It is recorded that those who learned English from missionaries at Dongmunhak were able to perform basic interpretation within six months, suggesting that a small number of English interpreters existed at the time (Byun 2008). However, the expectations for interpreters were not particularly high. Another record notes that graduates of Dongmunhak lacked proficient English skills, and that the halting English learned from missionaries, rather than through formal institutions, represented the best level of English proficiency available to Koreans at the time (B.-k. Jeon 2009). While it is possible that there were some outstanding interpreters, it is unlikely that the graduates who had studied at domestic institutions for a short period of time were able to interpret fluently.

Concurrently, Korea did not provide an ideal environment for learning Korean. Most early missionaries were required to complete three years of designated Korean language courses and pass a language proficiency exam to qualify as missionaries. Once they obtained their missionary qualification, they discontinued their Korean studies and were assigned to ministry fields such as churches, hospitals, and schools (S. Lee 2019b, p. 171). However, finding competent Korean language teachers was difficult, and no textbooks were available.

H. G. Underwood (1859–1916) arrived in Korea in 1885 and devoted his first two years to intensive Korean study (S. Lee 2019a, p. 146). His Korean language teacher, Song Sun-yong, had no formal modern education but had experience teaching Korean to French priests. This experience enabled him to help Underwood preach in Korean relatively quickly (S. Lee 2019a, pp. 156–57). According to a report by H. B. Hulbert (1863–1949), Song not only taught Underwood Korean but also served as his interpreter. The report mentions that Underwood, Gale, Hulbert, and two Koreans were working together, with a footnote identifying one of the Koreans as Song Sun-yong (Underwood 1904), who had been interpreting from the beginning (S. Lee 2019d, p. 136).

J. S. Gale (1863–1937) arrived in Korea in 1888 and was reportedly able to hold simple conversations in Korean within three months (H.-j. Kim 2020, p. 35). By his second year in Korea, he was involved in the translation of the Korean Bible and later played a central role in completing, publishing, and distributing the Old and New Testaments alongside Underwood and other missionaries (H.-j. Kim 2020, p. 38). Gale initially hired Lee Chang-jik as his Korean language teacher and later employed him as a missionary assistant and co-translator (S. Lee 2019d, p. 135). Lee Chang-jik accompanied Gale on his missionary travels, and Gale noted that while he was away on his itinerant ministry, Lee looked after his household, ensuring his wife’s well-being (S. Lee 2019d, pp. 136–38). This illustrates that for early missionaries, Korean language teachers were not merely educators but also played the role of interpreters and missionary assistants.

When S. A. Moffett (1864–1939) arrived in Seoul in 1890, five years after Underwood, the only person he could communicate with in Korean was Underwood, who was in Japan at the time (H.-j. Kim 2020, p. 27). Moffett prioritized learning Korean above all else, beginning his language study on his third day in Korea after just two days of rest (H.-j. Kim 2020, p. 26). In a letter to missionary leader Ellinwood, Moffett wrote that baptismal candidates had to wait because of communication difficulties and that, even when opportunities arose, the lack of manpower prevented the expansion of missionary work (Moffett to Ellinwood, Seoul, 9 November 1892, cited in H.-j. Kim 2020, p. 28). By the latter half of 1892, just two years after his arrival, Moffett began delivering sermons in Korean at women’s worship services (H.-j. Kim 2020, p. 31).

H. G. Appenzeller (1858–1902) arrived in Korea in 1885 and preached his first sermon in Korean on Christmas Day in 1887, two years after his arrival. He was reportedly deeply moved by the experience (Chungdong First Methodist Church n.d., p. 26). He later established Baejae Academy and Jeongdong First Methodist Church, actively contributing to Bible translation efforts. However, in August 1902, while traveling to attend a Bible translators’ conference, he tragically lost his life when his boat collided with another vessel (K.-i. Park 2017). He drowned while attempting to rescue a Korean interpreter and a female student who had been traveling with him. Appenzeller was a devoted missionary who demonstrated his commitment to others until the very end. This account confirms that even after 15 years of preaching in Korean, Appenzeller was still accompanied by an interpreter. Despite his involvement in Bible translation, the presence of interpreters at translation conferences indicates that accurate communication remained essential for carrying out such critical work.

William M. Baird (1862–1931), the founder of Soongsil University, and his wife, Annie Laurie Adams Baird (1864–1916), arrived in Korea in 1891 (I.-s. Lee 2022, p. 21). According to Annie’s mission report, there were no systematic methods for learning Korean at the time, nor were competent Korean language instructors available (I.-s. Lee 2022, p. 87). Consequently, she taught herself and, in 1896, published Fifty Helps for the Beginner in the Use of the Korean Language, which served as a standard Korean language learning textbook for missionaries until World War II (I.-s. Lee 2022, pp. 91–93).

The aforementioned missionaries generally acquired sufficient command of Korean within approximately two years of arrival, enabling them to engage in conversations and even deliver sermons in the language. While some missionaries achieved proficiency relatively quickly, the majority of early missionaries faced significant challenges in learning Korean. In many cases, they were taught by instructors who did not speak English. At the time, Western missionaries in Korea had difficulty finding professional Korean teachers, and those who lacked knowledge of English or formal training in pedagogy could only provide instruction in pronunciation (S. Lee 2019c, pp. 200–1). However, the role of Korean language instructors extended beyond language education; they also served as interpreters, assisted in Bible translation, and supported various missionary activities. Additionally, early missionaries often traveled with Korean language teachers, learning and practicing the language during their missionary journeys (S. Lee 2019c, p. 199). These interactions between missionaries and Korean instructors play a crucial role in the history of Christian missions.

On 17 September 1907, the first presbytery of the Presbyterian Church of Korea was established, and in the same year, seven graduates of Pyongyang Theological Seminary became the first Koreans to be ordained as pastors (Minutes of the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church of Korea 1980, pp. 1–23, quoted in Saemoonan Church 2019). With the emergence of Korean clergy, the language barrier within the church may have been alleviated to some extent. Meanwhile, in the Methodist Church, Rev. Choi Byeong-heon served as a Korean language instructor for E. W. Jones and a classical Chinese teacher at Baejae Academy before being ordained by Appenzeller in 1902. Following Appenzeller’s death, he assumed the role of senior pastor at Jeongdong First Methodist Church (Chungdong First Methodist Church n.d., p. 79).

In a slightly later period, the presence of formal Korean language instruction for missionaries is confirmed. From 1920 until at least 1937, an institutionalized Korean language school for missionaries, known as the “Language School”, was in operation (Oh 2011, p. 3). This initiative likely alleviated some of the linguistic challenges faced by early missionaries, particularly the difficulty of finding qualified Korean language teachers.

3.2. Interpreters of Early Missionaries

Records regarding interpreters in the Christian field from when the early missionaries arrived in Korea are limited. However, some sources indicate that Korean language instructors also served as interpreters, fulfilling multiple roles as missionary assistants. While newspaper articles and church records confirm the presence of interpreters, little information is available regarding the specific nature of their work. Most sources mention interpreters only briefly and in passing, yet these remain the primary references that offer insights into their roles. Thus, despite these constraints, this study relies on such materials as a basis for analysis.

Among the missionaries dispatched by the Southern Presbyterian Church, William Dyer Reynolds (1867–1951) and six others studied Korean in Seoul. After approximately one year, they had acquired sufficient proficiency in Korean to deliver short sermons. Subsequently, they embarked on missionary tours in Jeolla Province. In early 1893, Reynolds’ Korean language teacher and evangelist, Jeong Hae-won, was sent to Jeonju to survey the region and establish a mission base, purchasing a thatched house for $26.

(Gospel Prayer Newspaper 2017, 11 July)1

Jeong served as an evangelist, assisting Reynolds, teaching Korean, and making preparatory visits to mission sites. While the article primarily describes him as a teacher and evangelist, another source confirms that he also performed interpretation duties for missionaries. Additionally, he actively preached the gospel in marketplaces and on the streets.

Jeong, who interpreted for missionaries while also providing Korean language instruction, purchased two houses for $26 to accommodate missionaries. He later became the first Korean to evangelize in the Honam region, spreading the gospel in marketplaces and public areas.

(Jeonbuk Ilbo 2019, 26 December)2

Others served as Korean language instructors, interpreters, and assistants to missionaries and later became pastors. Ahn Chang-ho (1884–1969) initially worked as a Korean language teacher for missionaries, and an interview with his grandson suggests that he also functioned as an interpreter. However, it remains unclear whether he first assisted missionaries while attending seminary or if his role as a missionary assistant led him to pursue ordination.

Ahn was recommended as a Korean language instructor by missionary Frank Earl C. Williams, who arrived in Korea in 1906. In 1907, when Williams was assigned to Gongju, Chungcheongnam-do, Ahn accompanied him as both an interpreter and an evangelist, advocating for education as a means of national enlightenment and self-strengthening. In 1908, Ahn became one of the first graduates of Korea’s earliest Methodist seminary, Hyeoksung Theological Seminary.

(T.-w. Kim 2025)

Yang Jeon-baek (1869–1933), who also operated an academy, served as a missionary evangelist and interpreter while establishing several educational institutions. He was later ordained as a pastor.

Yang, who taught Classical Chinese, Hangul, and the Bible, worked as an interpreter for Norman C. Whittemore (1870–1952), an evangelist based in Pyongyang, and contributed to educational efforts by founding Myeongshin School, an elementary school. In 1906, he established Shinsin Middle School, followed by Boseong Girls’ School and Daedong Orphanage in 1907 and 1908, respectively. In 1907, he graduated from the Presbyterian Theological Seminary alongside Rev. Gil Sun-joo and was ordained as a pastor.

(CTS Archive 2019, 14 January)3

Kim Ransa was the first Korean woman to earn a Bachelor of Arts degree from Wesleyan University in the United States. Because of her experience studying abroad, she served as an interpreter for King Gojong (Chungdong First Methodist Church n.d., p. 103). After returning to Korea in 1896 at her own expense, she worked as a teacher at Ewha Hakdang, where she taught English and facilitated communication between missionaries and students (S.-i. Kim 2019).

Conversely, some interpreters for missionaries transitioned into other professions. Notably, Lee Chae-yeon later assumed a position equivalent to the present-day mayor of Seoul, as Hansung Panyoon, and played a crucial role in modernizing the city. Initially, he worked as an interpreter for Dr. Horace Newton Allen (1858–1932), a physician at Jejungwon. When Allen was appointed as an advisor to the Korean Legation in the United States, Lee was also appointed as an interpreter at the legation.

Lee Chae-yeon initially worked as an interpreter under Allen, an American missionary who led Jejungwon. In 1887, Korea dispatched its first diplomatic mission to the United States, and Allen was among those chosen to accompany the delegation. Lee traveled with Park Jung-yang, the first Korean minister to the U.S., serving as an interpreter. He was later promoted to deputy minister before returning to Korea in 1893. In 1896, under Park’s administration, he was appointed as Hansung Panyoon and was tasked with modernizing Seoul, a responsibility in which he was evaluated positively.

(Shim 2021)

In 1887, at the time of his appointment as the interpreter for Korea’s first U.S. minister, Park Jung-yang, Lee reportedly did not speak any English. However, after working as a diplomat in the United States for over five years, his English improved to the extent that he could interpret lengthy speeches in real time (JoongAng Sisa Magazine 2020, 20 July). This suggests that, during his time as Allen’s interpreter, he may not have been performing actual interpretation in the conventional sense. Rather, he likely relied on gestures and basic communication methods to facilitate interactions between Allen and patients. Given the scarcity of English speakers in Korea at the time, it can be inferred that missionaries did not have high expectations of interpreters.

Lee Ha-young is better known as Allen’s interpreter than Lee Chae-yeon. In 1884, the two met on a ship traveling from China to Korea.

When they met on the ship, Lee Ha-young had recently been defrauded by a business associate, while Allen was disheartened by the lack of success in his mission work in China. Since Allen did not speak Korean and Lee Ha-young did not speak English, their communication was mediated by a Japanese-English interpreter. Lee Ha-young initially worked as Allen’s cook. After studying English under Allen for a year, Lee Ha-young was able to speak a few words in English, considered one of the highest levels of English proficiency attainable by Koreans at that time. Allen subsequently appointed Lee Ha-young as his interpreter. Despite his lack of formal education and his humble background, Lee Ha-young later received an official position from King Gojong. When Korea’s first envoy to the United States, Park Jeong-yang, was appointed in 1887, Lee Ha-young was dispatched as a second-class secretary. Since Lee Chae-yeon could not speak English at all, Lee Ha-young assumed the role of interpreter.

(B.-k. Jeon 2009)

Lee Ha-young is described as the person who assumed the role of interpreter for Allen, despite the fact that he could not speak the language (S.-J. Jeon 2020). When Lee Ha-young first assumed this role, he apparently did not speak English well. However, he quickly mastered the language and became one of the best English speakers in Korea. He became a diplomat because of his relationship with Allen.

Syngman Rhee, the first president of South Korea, was also in charge of interpreting the medical missionary. However, it is unclear from the article whether he served as an interpreter for a period of time or was hired on a one-time basis. While he is known for his efforts to spread the Christian faith, there is no record of him interpreting at churches or meetings.

In 1895, Syngman Rhee enrolled in the Jeongdong Baejae Academy, founded by Appenzeller, where he was a brilliant student, and within six months of enrolling, was teaching basic English to new students. In 1898, due to the chaotic political situation in Korea, he was appointed as a yoshichal, and in January of the following year, while accompanying medical missionary Dr. Harry C. Sherman as an interpreter, he was arrested for treason near the Japanese consulate and imprisoned in Hansung Prison.

(D.-w. Lee 2020)

Lee Chae-yeon, Lee Ha-young, and Syngman Rhee were in charge of interpreting for medical missionaries; however, there is no record of them interpreting in churches or meetings. Strictly speaking, they were not interpreters in the Christian field. Similarly, depending on the missionary’s ministry, such as preaching, education, or medical care, future career paths for the interpreters were identified differently. Interpreters of medical missionaries worked as medical interpreters rather than missionary assistants and later became active in fields outside the Christian world.

However, evidence confirms the presence of interpreters who facilitated communication at large public gatherings. Yun Chi-ho (1865–1945) interpreted before an audience of approximately 6000 people. Yun studied Japanese and English in Japan and, upon returning to Korea, served as a diplomatic advisor to King Gojong and as an interpreter for the American legation official Foote. He later pursued further studies in China before traveling to the United States to study theology (National Institute of Korean History n.d.b). Yun was the first Korean theologian to study in the United States (Chungdong First Methodist Church n.d., p. 88).

When John Raleigh Mott (1865–1955), a leading figure in the YMCA and the ecumenical movement, first visited Korea in 1907, he delivered a lecture before an audience of 6000 people, with Yun Chi-ho serving as his interpreter. (…) The world’s first ecumenical missionary conference, the Edinburgh Conference of 1910, was attended by 15 delegates from Korea, including Gillette, Moffett, and Underwood. Yun was the only Korean representative.

(Y.-h. Lee 2014)

Yun had learned English through private tutoring in Japan, motivated by the urgent national need for competent English interpreters, prior to his diplomatic service in Korea (S.-m. Lee 2003, p. 122). He was an intellectual with significant social influence. His role as the sole Korean delegate at the Edinburgh Conference underscores his importance in contemporary Christian circles. While S.-m. Lee (2003) does not explicitly evaluate his interpretation skills, inferences can be drawn from related sources.

Mott’s lecture lasted three and a half hours, and approximately 200 young attendees outside the venue reportedly decided to become disciples of Jesus. The interpreter at the time was Yun Chi-ho, a graduate of Vanderbilt University in the United States. After witnessing this event, Mott even prophesied that if missionary work continued, Korea would become the first Christian nation among non-Christian countries.

(Kookmin Ilbo 2004, 26 April)4

It appears that Mott’s sermon was effectively conveyed to the audience through interpretation. Furthermore, beyond mere linguistic conversion, the gospel message itself was successfully communicated through the interpreter, leading many to commit themselves to Christianity, possibly influencing Mott’s prediction.

Early Korean language teachers for missionaries served in multiple roles—as interpreters, translators, assistants, evangelists, and even missionaries themselves. Over time, some transitioned into pastoral ministry, while others pursued careers in diplomacy and education. Others remained engaged in mission work, continuing their service in Christian communities. In general, interpreters’ English proficiency was not high, and missionary expectations for their linguistic skills were relatively low. Missionaries and their interpreters collaborated closely, complementing each other’s limitations in their shared mission to spread the gospel. Meanwhile, those who served as interpreters for medical missionaries were more aligned with the role of medical interpreters than religious interpreters.

4. Interpreters in the Christian Field During the Japanese Colonial Period

To analyze the individuals responsible for interpretation in the Christian field during the Japanese colonial period, this study examined newspaper articles from the time using the Naver Newspaper Library (available at: https://newslibrary.naver.com/search/searchByDate.naver, accessed on 31 January 2025). While Korean language teachers of missionaries frequently served as interpreters during the Open Port Period, it was primarily elite intellectuals who had studied abroad assumed interpretation roles during the Japanese colonial period. This shift can be attributed to the increasing number of individuals proficient in English and Japanese at the time.

The interpreters recorded in newspapers were mostly figures of social influence. By contrast, anonymous interpreters who facilitated missionary sermons across the country are rarely mentioned in historical records. Thus, the materials analyzed in this study should be understood not merely as records of interpreters but as documentation of the activities of elite intellectuals who were recognized in society at the time.

During this period, newspaper articles were subject to Japanese censorship, with Japanese interpreters predominantly responsible for the oversight (Jeong 2005, pp. 4–5). Although this study does not delve into the specifics of the censorship process, it acknowledges the significant role of censors in shaping the available newspaper records.

This study focuses on identifying the presence of interpreters in the Christian field rather than assessing individual figures or specific events. Additionally, while certain interpreters’ actions may have become subjects of later controversy, this study remains centered on their historical roles and contributions within the Christian field.

4.1. English Interpreters

During the Japanese colonial period, those who served as English interpreters in the Christian field were primarily elite intellectuals who had studied in the United States. Their roles extended beyond mere interpretation; they actively participated in missionary work, Christian education, and social reform.

Floyd E. Hamilton (1890–1969) arrived in Pyongyang in 1920 and began studying Korean. From 1921, he worked as a professor of biblical studies at Soongsil College while simultaneously serving as a pastor in a local church (S.-h. Seong 2016, pp. 63–69). The lecture mentioned in the following article took place just over two years after Hamilton’s arrival in Korea. Interpretation was provided by Park Yun-geun (1891–?), a professor at the same institution.

On November 1 and 2, the Pyongyang Christian Youth Association hosted a grand lecture every evening at Jangdaehyeon Church in Pyongyang, inviting Hamilton, a missionary newly arrived from the United States. Interpretation was provided by Park Yun-geun, a professor at Soongsil College.

(Donga Ilbo 1922, 4 November)

Park Yun-geun, the interpreter, studied chemistry at the College of Wooster in the United States from 1916 to 1919 while also engaging in music studies. He was devoted to spreading the gospel through music, participating in concert tours with students, and performing at charity events (Min 2017, pp. 75–76). This suggests that his selection as an interpreter was not solely based on his language proficiency but also on his strong Christian faith and missionary dedication.

Meanwhile, in the 1910s, the number of students officially permitted by the Government-General of Korea to study abroad was 57, of whom 26 were enrolled in institutions in the U.S. mainland. However, the exact number of Korean students studying abroad is difficult to determine, as many traveled clandestinely through Shanghai or Europe as political exiles (Hong 2001, p. 158). Korean students from Pyeongan Province who went to the United States began returning as early as the 1910s, with most returning in the early 1920s, and subsequently entering educational institutions and industrial sectors (K.-s. Lee 2021, pp. 95–100). Korean international students in the United States during the Japanese colonial period constituted the highest echelon of society; despite their small numbers, their social influence was substantial.

The following article mentions that the interpretation was provided by Oh Geung-seon (1878–1963) and Song Eon-yong. Oh entered the University of Louisville School of Medicine in the United States, where he earned a medical doctorate. As a medical missionary dispatched by the Southern Presbyterian Church, he contributed to the advancement of Korean medicine, eventually becoming the first Korean principal of Severance Union Medical College (Lim 2020, pp. 363–95).

The Western Wives Club, which is organized by the wives of consular officers, Western missionaries, and other general maintenance wives, held a united charity meeting. It was held at the Myeongdong Western School from 5:00 p.m. on the 23rd, presided over by Rev. Smed, and attended by about 30 Western missionaries, consuls, and their wives in the city, and about 10 Koreans, including Oh Geung-seon, Song Eon-yong, and Shin Shin-woo. About 10 Japanese attended, including the pastors of various churches in the city, the governor’s deputy, and an interpreter. Song Eon-yong and Oh Gyeongsun gave opening remarks with interpretations.

(Chosun Ilbo 1924, 24 December)

Before going to the United States to study in 1902, Oh interpreted for missionary William Ford Bull (1877–1941) in Gunsan (Jeong-hee Jeon 2019). He was a devout Christian, physician, and missionary. According to the 1914–1915 sermon titles and preacher list for Underwood’s New Moon Church, he was also in charge of the Sunday afternoon sermons (Saemoonan Church 2019, pp. 180–82). He also served as a teacher in the English Bible Class for young adults at the church, beginning in 1921 (Saemoonan Church 2020, p. 21). I was unable to gather information about the other interpreter.

Several Japanese attendees were present at the event, including pastors from various churches in the city, doctors from the Governor-General’s Office, and interpreters. At that time, the Governor-General’s Office of Korea also had English interpreters who had studied in the United States (B.-a. Kim 2021, p. 21). If any of the Japanese attendees had difficulty communicating in English, the interpreters would have provided individual English–Japanese interpretation.

The following article introduces Yun Chi-ho, who served as an interpreter, as a key figure in the Christian community. He had studied in Japan, China, and the United States and was said to be proficient in multiple languages; however, historical records indicate that in documented interpreting situations, he primarily interpreted English.

From the 24th to the 27th, a lecture will be held at the Haehae Hall from 7:30 p.m. every day for four days, and Dr. Arthur Frederick Bolliger, bishop of the Southern Methodist Church in Korea, will give a lecture and Yun Chi Ho will interpret.

(Dong-A Ilbo 1925, 22 February)

Yun’s English diary records his experience as an interpreter in the church (National Institute of Korean History n.d.b)5. There are also references to interpreting in his diary. Sometimes he wrote about the interpretation itself, and sometimes he expressed his feelings at the time.

20 May 1917 (Sun)

Morning worship at 宗橋如前. At 2:30 p.m. went to Pierson Memorial Bible School to attend its dedication service. Mr. Curtis made an address and I interpreted for him. It was too long―.

The Jongkyo Church, which Yun Chi-ho reportedly attended, was a sizable congregation. He would have stood on the platform alongside Mr. Curtis, interpreting for a large audience. His remark, “It was too long—”, suggests that the task of interpreting was quite demanding. On this particular day, Yun first interpreted Curtis’s sermon at 2:30 PM at Jongkyo Church, then immediately moved to the YMCA to interpret another sermon at 4:00 PM, following a rigorous schedule.

19 September 1920 (Sun)

Worshipped at 宗橋 Church. I interpreted for Bish. Lambuth.

At evening service, Mr. Steward preached, and I interpreted. His moralization was a little farfetched, comparing the conflict between the angels and the dragon in the verse of 12th Chapter of Revelation with our conflict with sins. Through an interpreter, the sermon lost much of its significance. Mr. S. is a fine speaker with a good voice and clear enunciation.

On this day, Yun Chi-ho interpreted two sermons. He expressed skepticism about Steward’s sermon, noting that much of its meaning was lost in translation. However, when he acknowledged Steward’s strong voice and clear pronunciation, his diary subtly revealed the interpreter’s frustration—Steward’s strengths as a speaker could not be fully conveyed through interpretation, resulting in a less persuasive delivery. This highlights that interpretation is not merely a linguistic conversion but also involves the effective transmission and contextualization of meaning.

22 November 1889 (Sat)

This God and his Providence that has protected and guided me. I have a mission to fulfil; and my life will either be a failure or a success according as how well or ill I may discharge my duties. What is this mission? It is this: preaching the Gospel, and giving education to my people.

He also wrote about his mission of preaching the Gospel and providing education to his people, which likely included his role as an interpreter. Interpreting in front of large crowds must have been a challenging task for him. However, he regarded the entire process as part of his calling.

In the following article, interpretation was handled by Shin Heung-woo (1883–1959), while Yoon Chi-ho, who had previously served as an interpreter, presided over the event. Shin Heung-woo graduated from Baejae Academy and pursued graduate studies at the University of Southern California. After returning to Korea, he served as vice principal of Baejae Academy from June 1911. Around 1914, he became director and chairman of the education department of the Korean YMCA and later served as its secretary from 1920 to 1935 (D.-k. Seong 2009, pp. 387–427).

At 2:30 p.m. on the 28th, representatives from churches across western Korea gathered in the grand hall of a downtown hotel to hold the International Missionary League. The Korean churches also convened to discuss their participation in the federation. On the morning of the 28th, Dr. Mok Deok presided over the meeting, with interpretation provided by Shin Heung-woo and Yoon Chi-ho serving as the chair. The image below shows a view of the venue.

(Chosun Ilbo 1925, 30 December)

In the photograph in Figure 1, three individuals can be seen at the front. The person in the center appears to be Dr. Mok Deok, the seated individual is Yoon Chi-ho, the chair, and the standing person is presumed to be Shin Heung-woo, the interpreter.

Additional records of Shin Heung-woo appear in the magazine Byeolgeongon (National Institute of Korean History n.d.a). He was widely recognized for his exceptional interpretation skills. The following article recounts an instance where he made a mistake while interpreting. However, rather than criticizing him, the audience responded with laughter, indicating their trust in his abilities. Having studied in the United States and played a significant role in the YMCA, Shin was a well-known public figure at the time.

Shin Heung-woo was not only famous for his English interpretation skills but also for his meticulous attention to accuracy. However, perhaps due to his excessive caution, he once made an amusing mistake while interpreting a speech by a Western speaker at the YMCA. Before the speaker could introduce himself, Shin inadvertently said, ‘I am OOO from the United States,’ which caused the audience to burst into laughter. In the end, even he could not help but laugh at his own mistake.

(Byeolgeongon 1930, Issue No. 30)6

Byun Sung-ok, who is the interpreter in the following article, was identified as both a physician and a pastor in the March 1950 issue of the magazine New Family (New Home Editorial Department 1950, p. 56). Other records indicate that Byun graduated from Soongsil University in 1913, served as a teacher at Soongsil Middle School, and left for the United States in 1916 to further his studies. Additionally, Byun Sung-ok and others are recorded as having contributed to music education at the missionary-affiliated Chosen Christian College (Jung 2020, pp. 282–83), supporting the conclusion that he was the same individual, as both records indicate the same birth year. Byun Sung-ok studied in the United States during the Japanese colonial period and later returned to Korea.

The first day of the inaugural General Conference of the Korean Methodist Church commenced at 9:00 a.m. on the 3rd, beginning with a prayer meeting led by Bishop Peiky. Delegates and numerous visitors were in attendance. Yun Chi-ho presided over the nominating committee, while Byun Sung-ok, along with Tae-gi and Kim Sung-sil, was responsible for interpretation.

(Chosun Ilbo 1930, 4 December)

Son Meryeh, the first Korean teacher at the Yi Chemical Center, was born Yeo Meryeh. She served as the interpreter for Christine Isabel Tinling (1869–1943) during her itinerant lectures, which ultimately inspired Son to actively promote the temperance movement in Korea. This suggests that the interpreter was not merely proficient in English but also shared ideological alignment with the speaker. It is particularly noteworthy that a woman served as an interpreter for such a large-scale lecture, as most interpreters at the time were men. Son Meryeh was a highly influential female leader of her era.

Christine Tinling was one of nine temperance missionaries appointed by the World Association of Christian Women’s Temperance at its Sixth World Congress in Geneva, Switzerland, in 1903. She was the daughter of an English minister. In 1923, she traveled throughout Korea, delivering lectures in churches and schools. At the time, Son Meryeh, who was a teacher at the Yi Chemical Center, accompanied Tinling as her interpreter. Deeply influenced by the lectures, Son decided to actively advance the temperance movement in Korea. She subsequently founded the Korean Christian Women’s Temperance Association in September 1923, bringing together women leaders from both Presbyterian and Methodist churches.

(J.-h. Lee 2017)

The well-known Korean nursery rhyme “Mountain Rabbit” (San Toki) is familiar to nearly every Korean child. Lee Il-rae (1903–1979), a pioneering figure in Korean nursery rhymes, is also recorded as having worked as an interpreter. Lee was actively involved in church life, serving as a choir director.

Lee was a key figure in the development of Korean children’s songs in the 1930s. The widely recognized nursery rhyme “Mountain Rabbit” is one of his most famous works. Toward the end of the Japanese colonial period, Lee was engaged in Christian ministry as an interpreter for the Masan Mission of the Australian Presbyterian Church, and served as the choir director of Masan Moonchang Church.

(then under the pastorship of Joo Ji-chul; Jeong-hee Jeon 2021)

Unlike in the Open Port Period, in the Japanese colonial period, Koreans who had studied in the United States returned with sufficient proficiency to interpret English accurately. Consequently, all of the interpreters identified in the articles above were members of the intellectual elite of their time. They not only interpreted sermons but also delivered their own sermons and engaged in public speaking. Many had theological training, while others preached during Sunday services despite not holding formal theological degrees. A common characteristic among them was their active involvement in church life, spreading the gospel through concerts, medical missions, and leadership in church choirs.

In contrast to the Open Port Period, interpreters during the Japanese colonial era held significant influence within Christian communities. They played active roles in social reform, education, and religious movements. However, it is crucial to acknowledge the contributions of unrecorded interpreters. This research has revealed a lack of documentation regarding interpreters, despite the likelihood that they played a crucial role at the time. These unnamed interpreters were likely ordinary church members who were trained by missionaries. Though their names may not have been recorded, they worked behind the scenes, assisting missionaries in their ministries. However, the limited availability of historical records makes it difficult to determine the exact number of interpreters assigned to individual churches.

4.2. Japanese Interpreters

During the Japanese colonial period, Japanese interpreters were also active in the Christian mission field. One notable figure, Reverend Watase, was ordained in 1907 and dispatched to Korea in 1910 by the General Council of the Japanese Union Church at the request of the Government-General of Korea. He established approximately 200 churches with a total of 20,000 members in Gyeongseong. However, his missionary activities were disrupted by the March 1st Movement in 1919, leading to his eventual return to Japan in 1921 (H.-m. Park 2023, p. 22).

On 26 March 1908, Watase visited Korea with Rev. Miyagawa, president of the Japan Union Church, to conduct intensive evangelism at Gyeongseong Church. The alumni association of Kyungsung Academy held a grand reception for them, and the next day, they held a grand lecture, inviting them as speakers. Miyagawa and Watase gave speeches titled “The Principles of Christianity” and “National Life and Christianity”, respectively, with Yoo Il-sun interpreting.

(H.-m. Park 2023, p. 44)

Yoo Il-sun (1879–1937), who served as the interpreter, studied at the Tokyo University of Physics with the support of Watase, the head of Gyeongseong Academy. After returning to Korea, he worked as an educator and later majored in theology at Doshisha University. About six months after his theological studies, he returned to Korea and began his ministry as an itinerant preacher for the Korean Evangelism Headquarters of the Japanese Union Church (H.-m. Park 2015, p. 251). The Korean congregation of the Japanese Union Church grew significantly, increasing from 554 members in 1911 to 3635 in 1913, and continued to expand thereafter. However, the number of pastors remained at only 13, indicating a severe shortage of clergy (H.-m. Park 2015, p. 229).

Interpreters also played an active role in the Japanese Union Church Congress. In Figure 2, the left photograph shows Rev. Tsunajima standing at the pulpit delivering a sermon, while the right photograph captures the congregation, dressed in traditional Korean attire, attending the service (H.-m. Park 2023, p. 38)7. In the left image, Rev. Tsunajima stands on the right side of the podium, while a Korean interpreter is positioned on the left.

The First Ichijo Union Church Congress was held at Gyeongseong Church from 1–5 August 1913. More than 300 Korean and Japanese church members attended. (…) During the service, Rev. Tsunajima delivered a sermon titled “Christian Compatriotism.” On the final day, 350 people attended the Unification Fellowship, and Rev. Watase gave the opening address, which was interpreted by Byung-sun Hong.

(H.-m. Park 2023, pp. 37–40)

At events such as the Unification Congress, it was common for an interpreter to stand next to the preacher and provide consecutive interpretation, as depicted in Figure 2. Rev. Tsunajima would speak in Japanese, followed by the interpreter rendering his message in Korean.

The interpreter on the last day, Hong Byung-sun (1888–1967), had served as the editor of the Korean Central Christian Youth Association’s official magazine and had close ties with the Japanese Union Church. After graduating from the Theology Department at Doshisha University, he worked as an evangelist at the Joseon Evangelism Headquarters of the Japanese Union Church. He was also an early member of the Hanyang Church in Gyeongseong, founded in 1913 by Watase, head of the Joseon Evangelism Headquarters. Furthermore, he was responsible for Sunday sermons and interpreting at major events hosted by the National Christian Council (H.-m. Park 2023, p. 117). However, another study suggests that Hong Byung-sun was also a pastor (S.-k. Ahn 2022, pp. 207–8).

Both Japanese interpreters, Yoo Il-sun and Hong Byung-sun, studied in Japan, majored in theology at Doshisha University, and preached independently. As evident in the photograph above, they played a highly visible role, standing at the pulpit alongside the preacher and interpreting before large audiences in a consecutive interpretation format.

One notable characteristic of English and Japanese interpreters during this period was that they were predominantly male. This aligns with previous research on the representation of interpreters in Korean fiction during the colonial era, which found that all interpreters were male, in contrast to the growing presence of female interpreters today (Y.-s. Kim 2018, p. 67).

During the Japanese occupation, English and Japanese interpreters played distinct roles. English interpreters were primarily involved in Christian missionary work and education, whereas Japanese interpreters were engaged in missionary activities supported by the Japanese government. However, they shared a commonality in that they were not merely language intermediaries but key figures in the dissemination of Christianity and social transformation.

5. Reflections and Recommendations

This study analyzes the role of interpreters for missionaries during the Open Port Period and the Japanese colonial era and explores directions for contemporary interpretation in Korean churches. The first research question was to examine the historical characteristics of interpreters in the Christian field from the Open Port Period and the Japanese colonial era, including their roles and influence. During the Open Port Period, missionaries’ Korean language teachers often served as interpreters. While they likely did not have advanced English proficiency, they assisted missionaries as translators, aides, evangelists, and preachers. By contrast, during the Japanese colonial era, individuals who had studied in the United States or Japan were often responsible for interpreting, contributing not only to translation but also to the Christian community and social reform. As mentioned earlier, many of these interpreters were elite intellectuals with enough social influence to be mentioned in newspaper articles.

The primary interpreting methods in the Christian field during both periods were dialogue interpreting and consecutive interpreting—the former was used for one-on-one evangelism, whereas the latter was employed for large-scale sermons.

With the emergence of simultaneous interpreting equipment in the mid-20th century, many Korean churches today are equipped with simultaneous interpreting systems and offer interpreting services. As multi-ethnic churches continue to grow, guest speakers frequently visit, and many members and visitors do not speak the same language. In this context, interpreters remain crucial to communication within the global church (Valero-Garcés 2022, p. 305). In contemporary Korean churches, interpretation is generally provided in two primary ways, consecutive interpreting and simultaneous interpreting, based on the worship setting.

When a foreign preacher delivers a sermon to a predominantly Korean audience, consecutive interpreting is typically used. Conversely, when a Korean preacher speaks to a primarily Korean audience with a smaller number of foreign attendees, simultaneous interpreting is preferred. The interpreting methods employed in Korean churches suggest that the status and role of interpreters are perceived differently depending on the type of interpretation. Consecutive interpreting is mainly conducted by theologically trained pastors, associate pastors, and evangelists, while simultaneous interpreting is typically carried out by lay members (H.-i. Shin 2015, p. 92). In modern Korean churches, there is a coexistence of perspectives: Sermon interpreters performing consecutive interpreting are often regarded as assistant preachers, whereas those providing simultaneous interpreting are viewed as volunteer interpreters (H.-i. Shin 2015, p. 100). This difference may be related to audience size; however, it may also stem from the fact that church members rarely experience simultaneous interpreting. Since foreign pastors’ sermons in churches are generally interpreted consecutively, church members have limited exposure to simultaneous interpreting, leading to a lack of awareness and assessment of its significance.

In contemporary large Korean churches, it is common for a Korean preacher to address a predominantly Korean congregation while providing simultaneous interpreting for a small number of foreign attendees. Simultaneous interpreters work from a separate location, and foreign attendees listen in real time using wireless receiver earpieces. Some churches even broadcast simultaneous interpreting online.

Interpreting practices in the Christian field have evolved from dialogue interpreting to consecutive interpreting and, more recently, to simultaneous interpreting in response to shifts in worship environments, technological advancements, and changes in missionary paradigms. This transition has also influenced interpreters’ background. South Korea is a leading missionary-sending country, dispatching missionaries worldwide. As the scope of mission work expands, a need to focus on missionary activities targeting foreign nationals residing in Korea has emerged. Consequently, churches must prepare for multilingual communication, wherein interpreters play a crucial role. Given the missionary work carried out by churches, it is reasonable to assume that bilingual interpreters serve as the first point of contact for foreign individuals exploring Christianity (Tekgül 2019).

The second research question of this study was to make recommendations on the direction of interpretation in contemporary Korean churches based on these considerations. How should the importance of language proficiency and faith be balanced? Hokkanen (2012) has discussed church interpreting as a form of service, one that serves both God and the congregation. In the early days of missionary work in Korea, missionaries did not have the proper environment to master the Korean language, and Korean teachers were not fluent in English. However, despite these linguistic limitations, evangelism was remarkably successful. This suggests that faith is as important as language skills in the spread of the gospel. The interpreters who assisted missionaries during the Japanese colonial period were well-educated intellectuals with excellent English skills, and their work extended beyond mere interpretation; their religious commitment was the foundation of their service.

For example, Rev. Jang Hwan Kim’s interpretation at Billy Graham’s 1973 Evangelistic Crusade is regarded as one of the most successful sermon interpretations in Korean Christian history (H.-i. Shin 2019, pp. 83–84). The fact that Rev. Kim was entrusted with the interpretation, despite the presence of many fluent English speakers at the time, demonstrates that not only language skills but also spiritual insight and the ability to effectively communicate the gospel were key factors. This case proves that the emotional and spiritual impact of a sermon can be successfully conveyed through interpretation.

Rev. Kim performed consecutive interpretation from English to Korean for a vast Korean audience. Conversely, in contemporary Korean churches, those who rely on simultaneous interpretation typically comprise only a small group of foreign attendees. This makes it difficult for the majority of church members to assess the effectiveness and reception of the interpretation, limiting discussions on its significance. As a result, simultaneous interpretation in churches is often overlooked or considered a service that requires minimal attention.

However, the role of an interpreter in delivering God’s word in church settings is of paramount importance, and from a missionary perspective, it is expected to become even more crucial in the future. Considering the current state of simultaneous interpretation in Korean churches, there is not only a shortage of volunteers but also a lack of trained interpreters for church ministry, as many have not received systematic interpretation training. It is time to recognize the dedication of early missionaries, the contributions of church interpreters, and the critical role of simultaneous interpretation in modern Korean churches. As the paradigms of mission expand, providing professional interpretation services will become an essential aspect of church ministry. Therefore, churches must actively promote the recognition of simultaneous interpretation and develop structured training programs. If theological education is combined with interpretation training, a more qualified pool of interpreters can be cultivated for church ministry.

Meanwhile, the selection of church interpreters should not be based solely on technical proficiency. A balanced approach that considers both spiritual maturity and interpretation skills is essential. However, discussions on the theological and strategic direction of church interpreting remain underdeveloped. While interpretation skills and training are crucial, as historical records indicate, the development of faith and a faith-centered approach to interpretation should be given due emphasis.

6. Conclusions

This study aimed to analyze the role and influence of missionary interpreters in the Christian field during the Open Port Period and the Japanese colonial period and to propose directions for interpretation in the contemporary Korean church. The findings reveal that interpreters were not merely language facilitators but played a significant role within the broader historical context, with interpretation methods and the interpreter backgrounds evolving over time.

During the Open Port Period, Korean language teachers of missionaries often doubled as interpreters. They were not just linguistic mediators but also functioned as translators, assistants, evangelists, and preachers. Although their English proficiency was likely limited, they played a crucial role in supporting missionaries and spreading the gospel. By contrast, during the Japanese colonial period, elite intellectuals who had studied in the United States or Japan served as interpreters in the Christian field. Many of them not only interpreted but also actively participated in the Christian community, delivering sermons in Sunday services and contributing to social reforms. Japanese-language interpreters were also found to have operated with the support of the Japanese Union Church and the Government-General of Korea. These findings confirm that Christian interpreters were not merely linguistic intermediaries but key figures in both missionary work and broader societal changes.

This study analyzed the role of interpreters based on newspaper articles and previous research; however, the lack of primary sources limited our ability to fully reconstruct the activities of interpreters. Additionally, numerous unnamed interpreters must have assisted missionaries but were not documented in historical records. The inability to obtain meaningful records on these individuals remains a limitation of this study. However, the presence of “Bible women”—who interpreted for missionaries’ wives and played various roles within the church (E.-j. Kim 2020, pp. 238–39)—suggests another important research avenue. While this study primarily focused on missionary interpreters, future research could explore the roles of missionary wives and Bible women, shedding further light on the contributions of lesser-known interpreters.

This study also prompts reflection on the factors most critical in missionary work beyond language proficiency. Early missionaries arrived in Korea with little knowledge of the language, worked with interpreters who lacked fluent English skills, and gradually acquired the ability to preach in Korean. Their experiences highlight that, in evangelism, commitment and mission can be just as, if not more, important than linguistic ability.

Thanks to the dedication of Western missionaries, Korea has transformed into a global evangelistic powerhouse, sending missionaries to various parts of the world. It is hoped that Korea will continue to play this role. Additionally, as the paradigm of modern missions shifts, the importance of missionary outreach to migrants within Korea is growing alongside overseas missions. Consequently, the Korean church must establish interpretation systems for foreign worshippers and create a multilingual worship environment that includes simultaneous interpretation.

This study is not merely a historical investigation but holds significance in proposing a direction for interpreting in the contemporary Korean church from a missionary perspective. Currently, the role of simultaneous interpretation in the Korean church is undervalued. This study underscores the necessity of recognizing the significance of church interpretation and calls for the establishment of systematic and structured training programs. Dedicated Christian believers must be encouraged to take on the role of interpreters as an act of faith and service. Furthermore, it is essential to emphasize that church interpretation is not merely about linguistic ability but about faith-driven service.

From the Open Port Period through the Japanese colonial era, interpreters connected foreign missionaries with the Korean people. Today, they must continue this legacy by bridging the Korean church with its increasing number of foreign worshippers.