The Gospel and Economic Disorder: Ephesus and the Cult of Artemis

Abstract

This paper will explore the background of how the first-century cult of Artemis was central to the economy of Ephesus, and subsequently, how Paul’s preaching of the gospel caused an economic disruption during his visit to the city, as narrated in Acts 19:21–41. The goal will be to show how theology and economics are interrelated and, as a result, establish the proper domain for advancing human flourishing in our modern society. The lens through which this paper is seeking to understand economics is through what is known as substantivism over and against formalism, or an empirical-based approach against a deductive–abstract methodology. The substantivist position is undertaken here primarily to explain how economic life is embedded in non-economic structures (here, the cult of Artemis).

1. Introduction

What does theology have to do with economics? Should we keep these disciplines separate? Surely no one is writing a biblical rationale on the key economic indicators of a society, such as the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) or the Consumer Price Index (CPI)? When was the last time a pastor was heard preaching a sermon on the rise of inflation? Probably never. Probably.

One point of intersection between theology and economics is anthropology. Economists understand and regularly articulate the connection between free market principles and human flourishing.1 In the words of Milton Friedman, “The great achievements of civilization have not come from government bureaus. The advance of a civilization has depended on the initiative and creativity of individuals” (Friedman and Friedman 1962, vol. 2).

What is Friedman attempting to say? One might argue that the creativity he speaks of is endowed to humans by a divine Creator; thus, achievement and progress in society come through human agency, not automated government machinery.2 Human beings are unpredictable, to say the least, but it is this unpredictability that brings with it the potential for advancement in human flourishing, especially as one strives to comprehend how theology and economics are compatible, not dissonant.

A variety of different methods are employed when scholars attempt to bring these disciplines together. One approach is a top–down analysis where a scholar theologically reflects on an economic principle(s). For instance, a writer might examine the ethical concept of generosity viewed through the lens of capitalism over and against disparate economic systems such as socialism. A second methodology is to consider the historical interaction between theology and economics, studying the role each one plays in the development of a society and arriving at appropriately grounded conclusions and timeless principles for application. This latter approach lends itself well to the Bible, where we discover theology and economics blending in real-world scenarios of human beings who are not so different from us today.

A profitable area of study for theology and economics is the New Testament letter of Acts, primarily because of the narratives that portray the daily lives of people who are seeking to apply a biblical worldview to their societal contexts.3 Therefore, this paper will explore the background of how the first-century cult of Artemis was central to the economy of Ephesus, and subsequently, how Paul’s preaching of the gospel caused an economic disruption during his visit to the city, as narrated in Acts 19:21–41. The goal will be to show how theology and economics are interrelated and, as a result, establish the proper domain for advancing human flourishing in our modern society. The lens through which this paper is seeking to understand economics is through what is known as substantivism, over and against formalism, or an empirical-based approach against a deductive–abstract methodology. The substantivist position is undertaken here primarily to explain how economic life is observed in both social and cultural realities (here, the cult of Artemis). Before arriving at these conclusions, it is critical to first establish just how central the Artemis cult was to Ephesus and its first-century inhabitants.

2. The Artemis Cult and Ephesus’s Economy

The ancient Mediterranean economic milieu was simplistic, with a few exceptions. Built primarily on agriculture, the flow of the economy depended on trade routes, both by land and by sea.4 As a result, cities flourished based on their geographic location, and Ephesus was no exception, given that its seaport was the gateway to the great Asia Minor trade route. Due to the flow of people through Ephesus, the city became a prime target for economic opportunity.

Ephesus possessed no “official privileges” as part of the Roman Empire, thus, it was considered free, implying that the internal affairs of the city were governed by its own laws (Harland 1996, p. 325). Certainly, this reality influenced the manner in which the economy was administered at Ephesus with respect to taxation. They were required to pay tribute to Rome but still coined their own money and operated an independent city council (boule). Ephesus in Paul’s day boasted a population of approximately 250,000 people (See Ramsay 1893, p. 154).

The layout of the city may give some indications as to its economic priorities. Ephesus, like other Mediterranean cities, was built around an agora, or marketplace, which contained shops and offices. This type of city planning has deep roots, stretching as far back as Julius Caesar’s reconstruction of the city of Corinth in 44–43 BC (Williams 1987). The marketplace was the central meeting place for the community, a space for vigorous debates, public court cases, and economic activities. Two agoras were active in first-century Ephesus. One main marketplace directly faced the famous harbor, and a state one existed slightly to the southeast. The state agora contained three temples: the Temple of Divius Julius (Divine Julius Caesar), the Dea Roma (the divine personification of the Roman Empire), and the Temple of Isis, a popular Egyptian goddess. The Theater of Ephesus directly faced the harbor, giving its 25,000 attendees a full view of the Mediterranean Sea as its backdrop.

However, according to Pausanias, it was the Temple of Artemis that was the focus and pride of the city (Pausanias, 4.31.8). The temple was not only the most magnificent building in Ephesus, but it was also the largest building in the ancient world. The temple was built in the mid-6th century BCE. It burned down in 356 BCE and was rebuilt in 323 BCE. Plutarch tells us that the Ephesians refused Alexander the Great’s offer to fund the cost, possibly giving a window into the pride and independence of the city, which stretched well into the first century (Plutarch 1919).

The temple was located directly east of the city, outside the Hellenistic city walls, at the end of a road named the Processional Sacred Way. The location was intentional as it was built to overlook the city, almost as if it served as its guardian or protector. Antipater of Thessalonica described this structure in the following manner,

I have set eyes on the wall of lofty Babylon on which is a road for chariots, and the statue of Zeus by the Alpheus, and the hanging gardens, and the Colossus of the Sun, and the huge labor of the high pyramids, and the vast tomb of Mausolus, but when I saw the house of Artemis that mounted to the clouds, those other marvels lost their brilliancy, and I said, ‘Lo, apart from Olympus, the Sun never looked on aught so grand.’.

(Paton and Tueller 2003, Book 9, Epigram 58)

We read in Acts 19:27 that “all Asia and the world worship (Artemis)”. This statement from the inhabitants of Ephesus to Paul is not hyperbole.5 One can imagine that as people traveled from across the ancient Roman Empire to see one of the seven wonders, they were accosted with offers to not only pay tribute to Artemis but to return home with a souvenir of their experiences. For example, abundant statues of the goddess are archaeologically extant, indicating her power and hold over the city. According to Everett Ferguson, the temple was “The Ephesian [emphasis mine], the sovereign and protector of the city” (Ferguson 2003). So, what should one note regarding the Temple of Artemis and the local Ephesian economy? The answer is found in the twin tenets of the Artemis cult.

The “bee” and “stag” of Artemis are two symbols often found on Ephesian coinage. The bee is a symbol of fertility, given that Artemis was primarily worshipped as a fertility goddess. The bee is also viewed as industrious and productive, values prized by the local Ephesian community. Even the priestesses of the temple were referred to as bees.

The stag represented Artemis as the goddess of the hunt and protector of the natural world. These symbols found their way into the life of the local Ephesian community—into its religious rituals, temple coinage, and surely the local economy, so much so that the Temple of Artemis was the banking and financial center for the entire province of Asia Minor.

Given these realities: the position of Ephesus as the gateway to the Asia Minor trade route, the sizable population, and the deep integration of the Artemis cult, we are on safe footing to conclude that the Ephesian economy was not only stable during Paul’s day, but it flourished. Thus, if a threat arose against Artemis or her reputation was brought into question, the perception might center more on an economic alarm than a religious one. To put it mildly, destroying Artemis would lead to a potential for severe destabilization within Ephesus’s economy. This background makes good sense of the reaction of the people at Ephesus when Paul arrives there with the gospel. It is to this situation with this background that we now turn.

3. The “No Little Disturbance” of Acts 19:21–41

Luke describes for us in multiple places the history of Paul’s visits to Ephesus.6 From the standpoint of an itinerant missionary, Ephesus was strategically located as the gateway to all of Asia Minor. Surely the size of the city and its resources served as a vital base of operations before Paul and his companions journeyed further inland to rural cities with the message of hope found in Jesus. From here, Paul could rest and resupply as he and his team strategized about the best location for new churches. Luke relates to us that Paul’s time at Ephesus was mostly peaceful. However, towards the end of Acts 19, a conflict arises that he describes as a “no little disturbance”.

Acts 19:21–41 narrates a simple three-part structure: (1) the source of the disturbance, Demetrius (vv. 21–27); (2) the near riot in the theater (vv. 28–34); and (3) the speech of the city clerk (vv. 35–41). The incident is initiated by a man named Demetrius, who the text describes as a silversmith or literally, a temple maker (ποιῶν ναοὺς). The shrines that he constructed were more than likely miniature replicas of the Temple of Artemis or statues of the goddess herself.7 In the ancient world, these shrines were used as iconographic worship instruments placed on a home altar or, oftentimes, they were purchased in the agora as a votive offering to the temple itself.

Demetrius assembles his fellow workers to claim that Paul is damaging their economic interests with the telling statement, “You know from this business we have our wealth” (19:25, English Standard Version). He then moves to an emotional appeal based on their honor/shame worldview. He argues that Paul is seducing the people of Ephesus away from Artemis, with the result that her greatness (honor) is robbed. To be fair, this statement is actually true. Paul has a long track record in Acts of preaching against idolatry.8 Demetrius‘s argument may be summarized as follows: (1) to attack Artemis is to ruin her reputation; (2) to ruin her reputation is to damage the foundation of Ephesus’s economy; and (3) to destroy the economy of Ephesus is to destroy the city itself. Therefore, the essence of his argument is an economic one. Demetrius was not concerned with Paul changing his worldview, but his wealth. The looming question is: why does the conflict occur at this time period of Paul’s ministry at Ephesus? Two responses are possible, one from the context preceding this pericope and the other from what we know of the Ephesian calendar.

First, in Acts 19:1–22, Luke describes events at Ephesus that inform and give further insight into the potential background of the conflict. Initially, Luke tells us about Paul’s withdrawal from the synagogue, which led to the further spread of the gospel both in Ephesus and the surrounding region (Acts 19:10). In addition, miracles and supernatural encounters occur that lead to a key event—the people of Ephesus burning their magic books.9 According to Ferguson, Ephesus was one of the centers in the ancient world for the practice of magic arts. He points out that “Formulas used in magic were known as Ephesia grammata (Ephesian letters)” Ferguson (2003, p. 124).

The book-burning incident contains an important economic detail for the astute reader. Luke provides the cost of the loss as 50,000 pieces of silver, or drachmas. At Ephesus, a drachma approximated a day’s wage. How would one estimate the cost of this event in modern terms? Ignoring complicated calculations regarding the time value of money, you could focus on the weight of the silver and the concept of purchasing power. As of today, the price of silver is listed as USD 0.80/g. We know that ancient drachmas were composed of approximately 4.3 g of silver. These factors would place the value of 50,000 drachmas at USD 172,000. If one were to examine the purchasing power of an ancient drachma, it would be equal to one day’s wage for a skilled worker, as noted above. A skilled worker in my home state makes, on average, USD 50–60,000/year, which roughly translates to USD 150–180/day. In comparison, at that time, the total loss at Ephesus was between USD 7.5 and 8 million. The belaboring of math marks a significant shift in the narrative from a moral/ethical threat to an economic one at Ephesus. Paul’s actions are now invading the practical daily lives of workers at Ephesus who are seeking to provide for their families, and in effect, they now put Paul “on the radar” of those in charge of protecting the city’s commerce. In other words, Paul is no longer a philosopher who has a small following at the Hall (School) of Tyrannus, he is now a growing threat to the economic viability of the city.

Second, the Artemision Festival occurred at Ephesus during the early spring months of March and April.10 The pinnacle of the festival was a parade in which the image of Artemis was carried through the streets from the theater to the temple. Ritual dances and theater productions were held during this period. Polhill suggests, rightly so, that “All told, there were at least thirty-three shrines to the mother goddess throughout the Roman Empire, and it was perhaps the most popular cult of all” (Polhill 1992).

A point concerning Paul’s methodology of evangelism is important here. Given the importance of Artemis to the economy of Ephesus, as evidenced by the lavish festivals in her honor, it is reasonable to conclude that Paul may have realized that these events provided an ideal venue for preaching the gospel not only to the people of Ephesus but also to the numerous travelers visiting during this time of the year. Such a strategy is akin to an evangelism team from New Orleans selecting Mardi Gras as their target for direct, intentional evangelistic encounters. Unfortunately, Paul’s choice of the festival as the domain for gospel advance did not come without risk. After all, no one likes a person who ruins a good party.

Our community of Hannibal, MO celebrates a festival around 4 July called National Tom Sawyer Days. The reason is that Hannibal is known as the boyhood home of Samuel Langhorn Clemens, also known as Mark Twain. The downtown center is focused on him and his life, as well as characters and locations from his books. To say our economy is tied to Mark Twain is an understatement. Paul’s preaching against Artemis during her festival is akin to me standing in Central Park and decrying the contributions of Mark Twain. It seems that the gospel possesses the potential for interpersonal conflict when it intersects and presses upon economic interests. The exploration of this deep connection is the next topic in our discussion.

4. The Gospel and Economics: A Deep Connection

The lens through which this paper seeks to understand economics is through what is known as substantivism over and against formalism.11 The latter claims that economics and social realities are separate from one another. We have made a case from our study of Acts 19 that this conclusion is invalid. Substantivism looks at, according to Brent Meyers, “The aspects of the social system—primarily in the cities—in which the economics of the society operates. These aspects of the social system are kinship, politics, and religion” (Meyers 2023).

Economics is fundamentally concerned with human behavior; thus, it is critical for healthy economic growth to contain an impetus/concern for human flourishing. We think of economics in the realm of how it affects the individual, not the group. It is critical to understand that the first-century society that Paul lived in was focused on group dynamics over individual rights and liberties, economically speaking. This reality is what we call collectivism.

We must be cautious about imposing free market capitalism anachronistically upon Paul as the practical ideal he hoped to achieve. Capitalism is focused on the individual and what is best for them, not necessarily what is best for the group. For example, capitalists decry government subsidies and bailouts of industries. Let them fail, they argue, and the free market will offer the necessary correction. Why should the government decide what is best for the whole of society?

To be clear, Marxism and Socialism are not the answers we need, nor are they the ancestors of first-century collectivism. We are only seeking to describe the reality of Paul’s context, so we do not impose modern free market principles upon the text. We should not read the text through the 18th-century worldview or the writings of Adam Smith. To be sure, this methodology is tempting given the voluminous material currently in existence on the connection between Judeo–Christian values and free market economics, but this is not our aim here. George Gilder’s words are helpful as a guide.

Throughout history, most of mankind has lived cramped and impoverished lives in materially affluent countries because of an absence of the metaphysical capital that is most crucial to progress: the trust in others, the hope for the future, the faith in a providential God that allows freedom and prompts the catalytic gifts of capitalism.

(Gilder 2012)

The Bible uses numerous economic terms and metaphors to explain theological realities. A few examples here will aid in understanding this claim. These, of course, are not exhaustive but do serve to make our point. First, in the Old Testament, the Decalogue reflects economic realities in the commands of “Do not steal” and “Do not covet” (Exodus 20:1–17). Numerous OT Law codes focus on economic principles in the exchange of goods and services. For example, in Leviticus 25:14–17, we read about economic ordinances related to fair trade, specifically focused on the just treatment of our neighbors at the transactional level. Moses instructs the people on the connection between economic principles and morality, focusing on the fear of God as a motivating factor in how one conducts daily business.

If you make a sale to your neighbor or buy from your neighbor, you shall not wrong one another. You shall pay your neighbor according to the number of years after the jubilee, and he shall sell to you according to the number of years for crops. If the years are many, you shall increase the price, and if the years are few, you shall reduce the price, for it is the number of the crops that he is selling to you. You shall not wrong one another, but you shall fear your God, for I am the Lord your God.

However, it is the NT that features a saturation of economic connections for us to consider. Of course, it is beyond the scope of this paper to highlight all these references, but it is profitable to consider a few. Jesus teaches in the Sermon on the Mount that spiritual wealth is to be desired far above material wealth when he tells the disciples and the crowds to “store up for yourselves treasure in heaven” (Matt 6:19–21). The Parable of the Talents (Matt 25:14–30) highlights the reality of shrewdness with respect to money. Furthermore, Jesus instructs us to be on the alert against all kinds of greed (Luke 16:13), and he holds up a poor widow as an example of generosity (Mark 12:41–44).

As noted throughout this study, the Book of Acts provides numerous examples in which the early church lived out its new faith as it intersected with economic realities. Acts 2:44–45 and 4:32–25 describe how believers communally shared resources through the sale of property and possessions. We discover that God takes seriously those who seek to defraud the church when he judges Ananias and his wife Sapphira with the penalty of death (Acts 5:1–6). Arguably, one of the most quoted passages in the NT on money comes from 1 Timothy 6:10, where Paul tells his protégé Timothy that “the love of money is the root of all kinds of evil”. As followers of Jesus, we are called upon to work hard (Ephesians 4:28) and provide well for our families (2 Thessalonians 3:10). While only a sampling, the passages mentioned teach us that our economic activity in our daily lives must be conducted through a spiritual rather than a worldly framework.

Theologically speaking, one of the primary ways the NT speaks about our salvation is through an economic lens. The word “redemption” (ἀπολύτρωσις; see Luke 21:28; Romans 3:24; 8:23; 1 Corinthians 1:30; Ephesians 1:14; 4:30; Colossians 1:14; Hebrews 9:15; 11:35) speaks of buying back, typically in the context of the purchase of slaves in the public marketplace. At the basic lexical level, the term carries the semantic notion of a payment to someone in order to secure release.

Historically, Christians have struggled with economic threats related to theology. A prime example is the impetus for Martin Luther’s desire to reform the Catholic Church, based on the sale of indulgences and widespread economic oppression of the poor in favor of Rome’s lavishness. William Wilberforce, a prominent member of the British Parliament, led the charge to abolish slavery, resulting in the Slave Trade Act (1807) and the Slavery Abolition Act (1833). Dorothy Day, an economic activist, established the Catholic Worker Movement, which advocated for workers’ rights during the Great Depression. More recently, Michael Matheson Miller, a research fellow for the Acton Institute, produced and directed a documentary called Poverty, Inc., which critiqued the global aid industry while offering solutions through a theological lens, such as access to private property and micro-financing with a view towards human flourishing. While just a sampling of historical figures, these serve to illustrate how individuals draw upon their Christian faith to bring about needed change in economic policy, especially where such policy stands against the clear teachings of the Bible.

Theology, both biblical and systematic, along with Church history, are broad-based disciplines. We are only seeking here in this section to make the case that the disciplines of theology and economics (with their applications) are not separate but interrelated. To be clear, we are not suggesting that a better understanding of economics will lead to an orthodox comprehension of the Trinity or vice versa. One way to move forward in our study of the events of Acts 19 is to ask the question: What elements of theology are reflected in Paul’s conflict at Ephesus? It is evident that one important subset of theology intersects deeply with economics in the story, namely, anthropology centered on human behavior that contributes to decision making in economic systems.

Turning back to the conflict at Ephesus, the fundamental disagreement was not centered on Paul’s ethical message, but on the question of “what are the means by which humans flourish/prosper?” The answer of the silversmiths at Ephesus and the crowd is that Artemis provides the means to prosper, given her protection over the city. Paul’s answer is that the gospel is the only true means to human flourishing. Next, we pivot to this discussion.

5. The True Source of Human Flourishing

Again, the relationship between economics and human flourishing is well documented. Unfortunately, this connection is often misunderstood because it is viewed through a secular lens instead of a biblical one. For instance, Stonestreet and Kunkle remind us of how we make a false correlation in this realm when they write, “We think wealth and possessions will bring human flourishing” (Stonestreet and Kunkle 2017, p. 233). For this reason, before moving fully into what the passage in Acts teaches us, we should say a few words about the proper way to view how humans prosper.

Our anthropology in the West is broken at the philosophical and practical level. Our levels of affluence are not producing the expected result of a tranquil and happy existence. Depression and anxiety rates are skyrocketing. Substance abuse has hit crisis levels. We have bought the lie that the increased production of goods and services, especially in the technology realm, will fill the longings of our hearts and provide the margins we need to “live the good life”. The common experience of most people in the West is that this promise has gone unfulfilled. So, we might ask at this point, what does a healthy anthropology, rooted in a biblical worldview, look like with respect to economics?

Humans are designed by God with an intended purpose and meaning. A foundational purpose for humans is their cooperation with God. Man is not a designed machine, but rather an embodied soul who interacts with and obeys the voice of His Creator by faith. If the chief end of man is to glorify God and enjoy Him forever, according to the Westminster Catechism, then we should expect that the way we operate in the world, even in our materialistic economic systems, does have a mandate given by God embedded within it. Simplistically, if God created us in His image, then He has a lot to say about how we live, move, breathe, and yes, buy and sell.

Humans are not designed by God to be consumers. Consumerism (affluence) is not the goal of human existence; in fact, it inevitably leads to idolatry. Consumerism treats people as objects, not subjects. The same is true of the biblical description of idolatry. We should, by way of contrast, see people as producers, not consumers. A view such as this one promotes the biblical ideal and mandate given to us by God to “be fruitful and multiply”.

Human beings are designed by God to work. However, our view of the purpose of work is distorted. According to Amy Sherman, “our vocational work serves as a sign and forestate of the coming kingdom” (Sherman 2011). Our view of work often falls into the category of descriptive adjectives like toilsome, hard, and meaningless. However, the biblical concept of work is the exact opposite—a grounded, essential view of work as positive and God-glorifying. By way of contrast, secular economists talk about work in a utilitarian manner, focusing on the pessimistic notion that work has very little to contribute to our happiness and satisfaction as humans. Within the biblical worldview, work has a fundamental creative aspect to it, leading to a proper understanding of the intrinsic value that it has for our lives. Therefore, our goal as workers within an economic system is not to produce raw labor, but to work with the attitude of faith that we know creates value and contributes to overall economic health and satisfaction.

The worldview of the Ephesians is that Artemis is the protector of the natural world; thus, she was the steward of creation. We discover the opposite in Scripture. Our first ancestors, Adam and Eve, were given the role of caring for the created order. This reality implies ownership of property, a key factor in human flourishing. The Ephesians were not in control of their own city, or at the very least, they had an illusion of control. How were they to truly flourish under such conditions? They may have possessed affluence, but they were in fact slaves to this artificial, material reality. Paul’s gospel deconstructs this false worldview, allowing the Ephesians to truly flourish by placing the control of their existence in the hands of a God who has designed them for His glory.

One of the principles we observe in the biblical text is that humanity is given a measure of freedom to make decisions, to freely exchange ideas as well as goods and services in the marketplace. At Ephesus, this freedom is limited by the economic stranglehold that the Artemis cult has upon the city. How could one possibly be entrepreneurial in such an environment? How could they live out their giftedness as humans made in the image of their Creator? The answer is, they cannot. The monopoly of Artemis would not allow such innovation, thus stifling the God-intended creativity of the Ephesian people. Surely, they could create within the Artemis economic framework, but is this not a limit artificially imposed upon humans that ought not to exist? Paul’s gospel releases people to be new creations, free to reflect their Creator not just in the moral realm, but in the economic one.

Finally, the biblical text provides a moral framework that helps to prevent economic injustice. It creates a level playing field where economic opportunity can allow humans to flourish as God designed. The moral structure of the Artemis economy is primarily object-focused, not subject-focused. In other words, this type of economic system treats people as objects that are exploited for the value they provide to keep the system operating, as instruments of labor that serve the perceived greater good of Artemis. The purveyors of the Artemis economy do not care about the true source of human flourishing; rather, their focus is on preserving the affluence Artemis creates. For the Ephesians, people become a means to an end—objects that are exploited on the altar of Artemis’s economic status quo, a perversion of what it is intended by God with respect to work. Paul’s gospel redirects their worldview on work towards the biblical concept of vocational calling, which is fundamentally subject-, not object-based. People are now to be viewed as subjects of God’s grace and mercy, deserving of recognition for the value they possess, not in the eyes of the local economy, but in the eyes of their sovereign God.

6. Conclusions

The goal of this paper was to show how theology and economics are interrelated and, as a result, to establish the proper domain for advancing human flourishing in our modern free market society. We observed through a brief study of Acts 23 how one views the world dramatically influences the level of overlap between these two disciplines. For the people Paul encounters at Ephesus, the gospel message is not a threat of moral change but of economic disruption.

Paul’s message to the Ephesians is viewed through their hostile response. Fundamentally, the gospel reorders our worldview, even in the economic realm. It forces us to see that our economic purpose is a theological one, ideally focused on the principle that humans are intended to flourish as valued image bearers. Paul argues, as we should, for the transformation of the whole person by means of the gospel message, not just a person’s spiritual reality, but also their material one. We must embrace, as Christians, that the gospel entrusted to us is a holistic one, concerned with the good of the whole person. To this end, our work is not complete.