The Crisis and Turning Point of Cultivation Deviations in Daoist Neidan: A Study on the Phenomenon of Zouhuo Rumo (走火入魔) and Its Contemporary Therapeutic Implications

Abstract

Current research on Daoist neidan (內丹, Internal Alchemy) has primarily focused on its philosophical frameworks, practical methods, and therapeutic benefits; however, systematic inquiry into the mechanisms of failure during practice remains limited. This study investigates the long-neglected yet pivotal phenomenon of zouhuo rumo (走火入魔, fire deviation and entry into demonic states) within Daoist cultivation, especially as it emerges in the context of dual cultivation of xing and ming (性命雙修). Through textual and hermeneutical analysis, this study traces the historical evolution, semantic transformation, and causal structure of the term, revealing its dual function as both a technical deviation and a religious warning. Findings indicate that zouhuo rumo arises from the interplay of impure self-refinement, loss of mental focus, improper fire phases (火候), and illusory disturbances, reflecting a profound psychosomatic imbalance rooted in the practitioner’s mind-nature (心性). Daoism interprets this state as mokao (魔考, demonic trials in Daoist cultivation), a transformative mechanism designed to refine inner alignment. On this basis, this study proposes a three-stage healing pathway—Spirit Preservation and Breath Stabilization (存神定息), Inner Vision and Self-Reflection (內觀返照), and Transformation of Form and Refinement of Essence (化形改質)—and constructs a Daoist cultural healing model that integrates moral cultivation, breath regulation, and introspection. This model provides a non-pathologizing cultural framework for enhancing psychological resilience, reconstructing meaning, and addressing contemporary spiritual and psychological crises.

1. Introduction

Zouhuo rumo is a critical yet relatively understudied phenomenon within the Daoist neidan tradition. The term denotes a state of profound psychosomatic disequilibrium that may arise during advanced stages of spiritual training. In popular discourse, however, zouhuo rumo has often been generalized, pathologized, or stigmatized as a symbol of religious superstition or practice-induced madness. Within the technical vocabulary of neidan, by contrast, it refers to specific forms of cultivation deviation in which physiological energies are mismanaged and mental stability is disturbed (Gai 2021; Qing and Zhan 2020). As such, zouhuo rumo marks a critical threshold within the Daoist cultivation system, especially in relation to the dual cultivation of xing and ming, pursued through a unified regimen of internal practice, yet it has rarely been subjected to systematic textual and theoretical analysis.

Recent decades have witnessed substantial growth in research on religion, health, and spiritual healing. A wide range of quantitative and qualitative studies has suggested that religious faith and spiritual practice may contribute to stress regulation, meaning-making, psychological resilience, and overall well-being (Levin and Schiller 1987; Koenig 2012; Gopichandran 2015; Varela 2023; Gu et al. 2024). Within this broader field, Daoist health philosophies have attracted particular attention and are frequently presented as paradigmatic holistic health models. The principle of dual cultivation, which integrates body, mind, and spirit, together with the ideal of the unity of Heaven and humanity (天人合一), has been examined as a metaphysical and practical basis for health preservation, and Daoist holism has begun to be drawn upon in psychological counseling and psychotherapy (Jing 2010; Lü and Chen 2009; Cheng 2013; Guo 2020; Y. Zhang 2024). As this applied literature increasingly draws on cultivation concepts such as dual cultivation of xing and ming, it also converges with Daoist studies on internal alchemy. This scholarship approaches neidan as a historically situated repertoire of embodied techniques and textual lineages, and it clarifies key terms and concerns such as the regulation of “fire phases” and the management of transformative processes (Pregadio 2014; Kohn and Wang 2009; Komjathy 2013; Despeux 2018). Work on Chinese religious modernity further extends this view by showing how cultivation traditions were reorganized and transmitted under shifting regimes of knowledge and authority in the late Qing and Republican periods, including the emergence of influential lay communities and urban networks of inner alchemy (Goossaert and Palmer 2011; X. Liu 2009). Taken together, these approaches have helped frame Daoist cultivation as both a holistic health discourse and a disciplined religious practice embedded in specific historical and social formations. In this literature, however, Daoism is still predominantly portrayed as a positive therapeutic resource that enhances personal flourishing and offers culturally specific models of body and mind integration, while moments of breakdown, crisis, and remediation remain less visible.

Yet this predominantly positive focus has tended to obscure the risks, failures, and crises that may occur within intensive cultivation. Negative or liminal experiences are often either pathologized in purely biomedical terms or mentioned only in passing as deviations to be avoided, rather than analyzed as phenomena with their own internal logic and religious meaning. Within the Daoist context, zouhuo rumo is one of the most emblematic of these problematic states. It functions not only as a label for severe psychosomatic imbalance in practice, but also as a key node in Daoism’s reflection on the dangers of cultivation, the limits of self-regulation, and the possibility of transformation through crisis. A careful examination of zouhuo rumo therefore has the potential to rebalance the current research landscape. It brings into view the shadow side of cultivation, that is, the moments when practice goes wrong, and allows these experiences to be interpreted from within the Daoist tradition itself rather than being reduced to external medical or popular stereotypes.

In order to address this lacuna, the present study examines zouhuo rumo as a pivotal concept that encapsulates cultivation deviation in Daoist neidan. Through a multi-method textual analysis of Daoist scriptures and traditional Chinese medical texts, it reconstructs the historical origins and semantic development of the term and clarifies how zouhuo rumo is conceptualized within both Daoist cultivation discourse and medical writings. On this basis, the internal causal logic of the psychosomatic processes associated with zouhuo rumo is analyzed, and Daoist preventive and corrective strategies for such deviations are investigated, with particular attention to key notions such as foundational self-refinement (煉己築基) and demonic trials. In addition, sociological and psychological perspectives are employed to illuminate the psychosomatic processes involved, so as to show how Daoist theory integrates bodily regulation, moral practice, and mental cultivation in responding to disturbances ranging from anxiety and hallucinations to cognitive disorder. In doing so, this study articulates a specifically Daoist response to contemporary discussions of religious health, spiritual healing, and spiritual crisis.

On this basis, the study addresses three guiding questions:

(1)

How did the concept of zouhuo rumo emerge and evolve in the Daoist textual tradition?

(2)

What explanatory models and remedial strategies does Daoism offer for cultivation deviation?

(3)

How can Daoist interpretations of zouhuo rumo inform contemporary understandings of mind and body imbalance and spiritual crisis?

Ultimately, this paper aims to reconstruct interpretive pathways for understanding zouhuo rumo through a dialogue between Daoist classics, medical traditions, and modern psychological theories, thereby uncovering the health philosophy and therapeutic potential embedded in the Daoist cultivation system.

2. The Historical and Conceptual Formation of Zouhuo Rumo in Daoist Cultivation

The Daoist notion of zouhuo rumo is not a loose metaphor in the modern sense but a concrete and experiential manifestation of cultivation phenomena within the Daoist cultivation tradition, especially in the neidan literature. Daoist texts offer detailed discussions of its causes, symptoms, and remedies, combining symbolic interpretations with medical and practical observations of bodily and mental pathologies. This section traces the historical development and theoretical foundations of the term zouhuo rumo, clarifying its semantic contours and risk function, and situates it within the broader Daoist cultivation context. Drawing on Daoist scriptures, commentarial writings, and traditional medical literature, it synthesizes textual genealogy, doctrinal interpretation, and practice-oriented analysis to examine how zouhuo rumo is conceptualized, what causal mechanisms are ascribed to it, and which remedial strategies are proposed. In doing so, it illuminates Daoism’s distinctive understanding of cultivation risks, psychological obstacles, and the pursuit of mind and body harmony as a dynamic and potentially hazardous process of inner transformation.

2.1. The Conceptual Genealogy of Zouhuo Rumo: From Alchemical Fire to Demonic Affliction

The term zouhuo rumo is often broadly construed in contemporary discourse as a sign of failed cultivation or mental disorder and is frequently used with pejorative connotations. Within the Daoist neidan cultivation system, it carries a more precise technical sense, referring to breakdowns in spiritual regulation and functioning as a religious warning. As a compound term denoting deviations in cultivation, its semantic contours were gradually shaped across linguistic, medical, practical, and symbolic contexts. The term’s formation can be traced through three main stages: first, the independent use of zouhuo (走火, misdirected fire) and rumo (入魔, entry into demonic states); second, their lexical consolidation into the single phrase zouhuo rumo; and finally, the religious, experiential, and symbolic elaboration that deepened its significance within Daoist practice.

The character fire, as a pictograph, first appears in oracle bone inscriptions, where its shape depicts flames scattering outward, symbolizing the expansion and outward release of heat. The Huangdi Neijing 黃帝內經 (Inner Canon of the Yellow Emperor) states, “When yang energy is stored within essence, fiery energy burns the eyes, causing tears to flow when exposed to wind”1 (陽氣內守於精，是火氣燔目，故見風則泣下也) (Yao 2010), reflecting the ancient view of fire as the emblem of yang energy in motion. Wang Chong (王充) of the Eastern Han further clarified in Lunheng 論衡 (Balanced Inquiries): “Fire is qi. (火，曰氣也) (Wang and Huang 1990), thereby affirming fire as a symbol of kinetic energy, transformation, and change. This symbolic system was fully incorporated into the Daoist alchemical tradition.

In Daoist external alchemy, fire became an indispensable element of the refining process. The Zhouyi Cantong qi 周易參同契 (The Seal of the Unity of the Three) remarks, “The Fire Record is not written in vain; one must elucidate it through the Changes” (火記不虛作，演易以明之) (DZ, vol. 20, p. 180b), identifying fire as furnace fire (爐火)—the key mechanism of refinement—signifying mastery of both intensity and fire phases. The concept of fire phases was later adopted by neidan to describe the regulation of spirit and energy, as well as the cyclical alternation of breath and intention. In his commentary, Chen Zhixu (陳致虛) explains, “The human body is a small cosmos: the body is the furnace, and essence is the fire” (即如人身一小天地，以身為爐，精為火) (Chen ca. 1330), thus clarifying the symbolic alignment of body, essence, and fire phases. The formation of the concept of zouhuo rumo is closely tied to the historical evolution of Daoist cultivation methods. During the late Southern Dynasties and the Sui–Tang period, the Daoist master Su Yuanlang (蘇元朗) brought together the allegorical phrase from Zhouyi cantong qi: “Only when metal returns to its original nature can it be called the true elixir” (金來歸性初，乃得稱還丹) (DZ, vol. 20, p. 124c)—and “the idea of returning to the root and restoring the mandate” (歸根復命) in the Daodejing 道德經 (DZ, vol. 12, p. 556a). On the basis of these two textual resources, he advocated refining the divine elixir within the heart and formulated the theory of dual cultivation, thereby laying the theoretical foundation for neidan (Qing and Zhan 2020). This transition marked a fundamental shift in Daoist cultivation, from an emphasis on material substances to the regulation of mind and inner nature, and it embodied the integration of mind–nature studies into Daoist thought (Gai 2021). Within this system, the human body is conceptualized as a crucible (鼎爐), while the circulation of mind and spirit is understood as the regulation of fire phases (火候). When mind, intention, and bodily functions are harmonized, practitioners seek health-preserving effects; when fire phases are mishandled, the result is classified as zouhuo, and when illusory experiences arise during practice, they are interpreted as rumo.

The term zouhuo originally referred to sudden conflagration. Its first appearance in a religious context is found in the Buddhist Mohe Zhiguan 摩訶止觀 (Mahāśamatha-Vipaśyanā). It states, “Moreover, since it is marked by impermanence, of the three one is superior and two are inferior; it is likened to crossing a river while fire runs out of control. “(又带无常，一优二劣，譬之横川走火)”, which uses the concept to describe incomplete cultivation and unaccomplished results (Congyi and Bai 2020). This marks the first usage of Zouhuo as a metaphor for cultivation deviation. The Dacheng Jieyao 大成捷要 (Concise Essentials of Great Achievement) further elaborates, “The phases of fire is so subtle that if any part of the refining process is mismanaged, the elixir escapes the furnace and the fire runs out of control, wasting all previous effort. “(火候細微，若有運煉不到之處，丹必出爐走火，而前功廢矣)” (Z. Xu 1990). Here, zouhuo specifically refers to the failure of the alchemical process caused by improper control of fire phases, revealing the substantive breakdown that results from the imbalance of true intent (真意), breath regulation, and the rhythm of advance and retreat in practice.

The term mo (魔, demon) originates from the Sanskrit word Māra, first appearing in Chinese Buddhist translations. Its core meaning is to destroy wisdom-life and corrupt the Dharma. As stated in The Dazhi dulun 大智度論 (Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom): “It robs beings of the life of wisdom and destroys the merits and wholesome roots of the Dharma; therefore it is called demon. “(夺慧命、坏道法功德善本，是故名為魔)” (L. Xu 2008). After the Northern and Southern Dynasties, Daoism absorbed and reinterpreted the Buddhist concept of Māra, granting it dual meanings of both warning and testing. In the Duren jing 度人經 (Sutra for Delivering Humankind), which venerates the deity Great Brahma, the cosmos is imagined through the structure of the Thirty-Two Heavens, wherein the Demon King is tasked with both protection and trial and is incorporated into the divine system (Z. Liu 1993). The text states that the Demon King tests Daoist practitioners through ritual dongzhang (洞章) songs to evaluate their sincerity and inner stability. Those who pass the test may be recommended (保舉) for transcendence and entry into the ranks of the immortals, revealing that the Demon King is capable of guiding Daoist practitioners to true realization (Li 2018). The Zhong Lü Chuandao ji 鐘呂傳道集 (Anthology of Zhongli Quan’s Transmission of the Dao to Lü Dongbin) and Dadan Zhizhi 大丹直指 (Direct Pointers to the Great Elixir) provide detailed classifications and descriptions of demons in Daoist cultivation, while the Wuzhen pian 悟真篇 (Folios on Awakening to Perfection) discusses the regulation of fire phases and the possible trials of mokao.

Daoism, on one hand, uses rumo as a warning against deviation from proper cultivation. The Daofa huiyuan 道法會元 (Corpus of Taoist Ritual) vividly describes such states: “When true pneuma surges upward, the body gradually swells and the spirit becomes agitated and unsettled … one fears entering a demonic state” (真氣上沖，身體漸大，精神騰幾……恐入魔境), pointing to both external afflictions and internal mental disturbances. On the other hand, Daoism elevates the notion of demon to mokao, referring to trials that temper and refine a practitioner’s inner resolve (DZ, vol. 20, p. 729b). As the saying goes, “As the Dao rises one foot, the demon rises ten” (道高一尺，魔高一丈); as one’s cultivation progresses, so do the corresponding trials (DZ, vol. 17, p. 147b). The Wuzhenren Dandao Jiupian 伍真人丹道九篇 (Nine Chapters) also states, “At times heavenly demons come to test and throw my lordly mind into confusion” (或有天魔來試亂我心君) (ZW, vol. 5, p. 873), revealing that such demonic tests serve as examinations of the practitioner’s clarity, willpower, and Daoist commitment. In this light, demons in Daoist discourse are not merely threats but integral to the journey of self-cultivation. They function simultaneously as obstacles, warnings, and initiatory trials—challenges that one must face and overcome to achieve spiritual transformation and immortality.

From Daoist sources, zouhuo and rumo were originally parallel terms: the former denoting reversal and disorder of pneuma dynamics (氣機逆亂) and loss of control over true fire, and the latter carrying stronger religious symbolism, often linked with disturbance by inner demons. Frequent references to mokao already reveal the composite nature of the term. From the Song–Yuan period onward, as neidan became systematized, the two terms merged into the integrated expression zouhuo rumo, used to designate deviations or even mental disequilibrium resulting from loss of willpower and pneuma imbalance in cultivation. In texts combining alchemical and medical discourse, zouhuo rumo was explicitly employed as a warning, urging practitioners to emphasize foundation-building (築基), breath regulation (調息), and guarding the true intent (守意). The Zhangshi Yitong states, “To fall into demonic states and suffer fire deviation still remains within the human and heavenly realms; the Three Teachings share a common source in leading to sagehood, yet the degrees of transcendence and the things they pursue or relinquish each differ “(入魔走火，人天境內，三教同源入聖，超幾趨捨各異)” (L. Zhang [1695] 1995)—the first explicit framing of zouhuo rumo, as a hybrid syndrome combining heart–pneuma imbalance (心氣失調) and shenshi (神識, spirit-consciousness) confusion. Zhang Lu noted that excessive mind exertion (役心太甚) causes loss of mental control, triggering phlegm-fire disturbance (痰火上擾) and symptoms resembling depression or mania: “They lose their will and become dull and inert, bursting into manic laughter and weeping outbursts, even behaving as if possessed by spirits or demons “(喪志呆滯、癲笑哭鬧，甚至如鬼神附體)”. By the mid-Qing, the term became secularized and literary. In Honglou Meng 紅樓夢 (Dream of the Red Chamber), Chapter 87 records Jia Mu’s fear that Baoyu might fall into fire deviation and demonic delusion (走火入邪魔) (Cao and Gao 2009), showing its extension beyond alchemical error to emotional and psychological crises. Though its religious context weakened, its cautionary function persisted.

In sum, zouhuo rumo integrates the dual dimensions of fire phase imbalance and loss of control in demonic states (魔境失守), serving as both an experiential summary of cultivation risk and a key concept within Daoism’s framework of mind and body unity. By synthesizing bodily signs, psychological causes, and cosmological symbolism, it became central to Daoist vigilance systems and laid the foundation for an early religious conception of health.

2.2. The Structure of (心魔, Inner Demons): Roots of Cultivation Deviations

In traditional Chinese culture, mind-nature is not only the fundamental proposition of ethical cultivation but also the core fulcrum of religious practice. Ren Jiyu (任繼愈), in Zhongguo Daojiao shi 中國道教史 (The History of Chinese Daoism), observed that the theory of neidan represents the manifestation of mind-nature studies within Daoist doctrine (Ren 1990). This underscores the centrality of mind-nature regulation in Daoist cultivation and provides the philosophical basis for its health concept of mind and body harmony.

From a Daoist perspective, the greatest peril in cultivation arises not from external factors but from one’s own xinmo (心魔, inner demons): “The Dao is in itself easy to practice and easy to understand, yet when the mind is at odds with it, it becomes difficult to comprehend and difficult to follow. When the mind is obstructed by inner demons, great virtue cannot be accomplished, and the square inch of the heart and mind loses its spiritual efficacy “(道本易行易曉，柰心違、難曉難行.心魔障，未成大善，方寸不能靈)” (Tang 1979). The Way is inherently simple, but human hearts filled with desires and distractions obscure the true nature, leading to mental obscuration and preventing awakening. Daoist texts further state, “The so-called Three Corpses and Nine Worms are the three demons within the human body. The Three Corpses preside over the three cinnabar fields, and the Nine Worms govern the viscera and organs; they often cause people to fall ill and stir up all manner of demonic afflictions “(夫三屍九蟲者，是人身中三魔.三屍管三田，九蟲管臟腑.多令人患者，為教人起諸魔.)” (DZ, vol. 20, p. 6c) describing the three corpses (三屍) as residing in the body, constantly stirring desires, and the nine worms (九蟲) as hidden in the viscera, causing illness and suffering (Eskildsen 2008). As long as these remain, the risk of zouhuo rumo persists. Daoist cultivation therefore stresses first refining the mind-nature, then refining the neidan (先煉心，後煉丹). Wang Chongyang (王重陽) and the Seven Masters of Quanzhen (全真七子) regarded wine, women, wealth, ambition and ego, and disputes as mo that must be eradicated. Qiu Chuji (丘處機) in Dadan Zhizhi lists ten major mo encountered during the inner vision stage (Wu 2013). These are essentially manifestations of xinmo; hence, cultivation is often described as refining the xinmo.

From a Daoist perspective, the various mo encountered during cultivation are not caused by external forces but arise from the practitioner’s own unpurified greed, attachments, and fears. These latent xinmo constitute the seeds from which the disorientation of shenshi arises. In Daoist discussions of cultivation deviation, xinmo thus functions as a general category for inner obstacles that disturb practice. Daoist texts distinguish several closely related types of mo that correspond to different psychological tendencies. To guide the discussion that follows, this study groups these tendencies into a threefold typology, moving from goal-oriented fixation to affect-driven craving, and finally to anxiety-based misinterpretation of internal experience. For the purposes of this study, three forms are especially salient: attachment mo (執著魔), desire mo (慾望魔), and fear mo (恐懼魔).

First, attachment (執著魔) refers to greed for achievement and impatience that lead to goal-oriented distortion. Daoism esteems the principle of spontaneity and non-action (自然無為), teaching that “One who clings cannot be said to embody the Dao and its virtue.” (執著之者，不名道德) (DZ, vol. 17, p. 188b). Excessive attachment leads to the loss of the true essence of the Dao. Applied to cultivation practice, “Those who cling to it find body and mind unsettled, with thoughts and worries assailing each other in turn … and they remain constantly sunk in a sea of suffering.” (執著之者，身心不定，念慮交攻……常沈苦海也) (DZ, vol. 4, p. 522b). When the practitioner’s mind is entangled in attachment, body and mind cannot find stability, and distracting thoughts obstruct the attainment of higher states. Even worse, “those who fail to awaken and stubbornly cling to their methods as the Way inevitably encounter demonic states” (学者不悟，横执为道，未有不遭魔境) (DZ, vol. 14, p. 697c). The harm is beyond measure. This reveals that practice focused solely on external form without achieving illumination of the mind and insight into true nature not only fails to reach the Dao’s source but is also prone to delusion by illusory realms. Such excessive projection and forceful pursuit of goals fundamentally violate the principle of spontaneity and non-action, causing mental rigidity and becoming a key trigger of zouhuo rumo.

Second, desire mo (慾望魔) refers to untransformed emotions and the allure of the subconscious. Daoists observe that “When the demon of desire assails a person, it is more grievous than a blade cutting into the body” (欲魔襲人，甚於鋒刃著體) (DZ, vol. 2, p. 458c), warning that unchecked desires corrode the foundation of cultivation more dangerously than bodily harm. Such xinmo manifest as the unresolved seven emotions and six desires (七情六慾). During quiet sitting (靜坐), latent desires easily arise and project as vivid, seductive mo realms. These visions are not external attacks but reflections of worldly cravings stirring in the stillness of practice. Failure to fully eliminate distracting thoughts allows these seeds of desire to surface as seemingly real illusions, misleading practitioners to believe they are beset by outer demons when in fact their own xinmo are at work.

Third, fear mo (恐懼魔) refers to anxiety, paranoia, and loss of control over self-perception. It arises from misunderstanding or hypersensitivity toward the cultivation process and bodily pneuma sensations, manifesting as “Doubt during stillness, dread and unease, startled sleep, and endless torment.” (静坐生疑，惧怖不安，睡卧惊悸，恶境无穷矣) (DZ, vol. 32, p. 466b). Such fear amplifies instability of self-perception, triggering hallucinations, self-denial, and obsessive thoughts. Daoist texts caution: “Even after enduring hardship to obtain the elixir, one must thoroughly expel lingering fears before entering the alchemical furnace, lest old anxieties disturb the sovereign of the mind.” (至有学者备历艰难，屡经危险，心胆惊怖，平时在怀得丹，入鼎切宜驱除，务令尽净，勿使牵罣旧虑，以乱心君) (DZ, vol. 24, p. 27a). This highlights the need to eliminate fear and doubt at critical stages, preventing them from disrupting mind and spirit. At its core, the fear demon represents pathological vigilance and catastrophic interpretation of internal pneuma dynamics, forming a vicious mind and body feedback loop that fuels zouhuo rumo.

During deep ding, practitioners may also encounter dazzling visionary states—celestial palaces, divine caves, or scenes of blessing and terror. Daoism views these as tests rather than achievements. Passing such mokao requires discernment and an unmoved heart. As the Sishijiang Jing 四十九章經 (Scripture in Forty-Nine Sections) teaches, “Do not contend with the demons; they will depart of their own accord.” (不與群魔競，來者自返) (DZ, vol. 1, p. 770c). By recognizing all illusions as mind-created and observing them with righteous thought, they dissolve on their own. Neidan texts summarize cultivation of the mind, which must first guard against demonic disturbance, distinguishing between internal mo (內魔), external mo (外魔), and trial mo (試煉魔). Only by stilling the internal mo can one remain free from disturbance by external mo and pass successive spiritual trials. Daoism thus regards encounters with xinmo not as failure but as a necessary path of tempering and refining mind-nature.

2.3. The Neidan Causal Structure of Zouhuo Rumo

The core of the Daoist neidan system is xingming shuangxiu, which emphasizes the integrated cultivation of mind-nature and pneuma dynamics (氣機) (Paccagnani 2019). Careful study of neidan texts and practice shows that mind-nature cultivation is not merely the foundation of the path but its central thread, ultimately determining attainment completion. The ultimate aim of neidan is not the physical preservation of the body but the clarity of shenshi and the transcendence of mind-nature (Huang 2011). Thus, the true root of neidan lies in cultivating and refining mind-nature, rather than the mere manipulation of essence and pneuma (精氣). The Tianxian zhengli zhilun 天仙正理直論 (The Celestial Immortal’s Direct Discussion of Orthodox Principles) states, “Before refining the elixir, first refine one’s nature; before cultivating the great medicine, first cultivate the mind” (未煉還丹先煉性，未修大藥先修心) (ZW, vol. 5, p.812), establishing the primacy of xinggong (性功, cultivation of inner nature) as the prerequisite for neidan practice. The Changdao zhenyan 唱道真言 (True Sayings of Proclaiming the Dao) further explains, “Through five or ten years of fire tempering, one nurtures the divine and sacred immortal embryo, melting away all past karmic habits. Though called ‘refining the elixir,’ it is in truth the cultivation of the heart.” (以五載十年之火候養成至神至聖之仙胎，使宿生習氣銷熔殆盡，名為煉丹，實為養心). This reveals that the formation of the immortal embryo symbolizes the sublimation of mind-nature, rather than merely the physiological unblocking of energy channels. When this subtle psycho-spiritual transformation is poorly regulated, it readily gives rise to errors in cultivation, whose root cause lies in the imbalance and disarray of mind-nature, and this causal structure can be summarized in four interrelated dimensions.

First, imperfect self-cultivation, understood as a weak foundation of mind-nature, lies at the root of later deviations. The core of refining oneself to lay the foundation lies in refining mind-nature—stilling delusion, removing habituated defilements, and subduing the restless mind so as to clarify the heart and stabilize consciousness for subsequent life cultivation. The Danfa Chanzong 丹法阐宗 (Explication of the Alchemical Method and Zen Tradition) states, “The self refers precisely to body and mind … the task is to allow body and mind to withdraw into quiescent repose so that they naturally become tranquil and firmly settled” (己者，乃身心是也……使身心息蟄而自然泰定也) (ZW, vol. 23, p. 270), identifying natural tranquility as the ideal of body–mind unity and concentrated intent. The Leyutang yulu 樂育堂語錄 (Discourses from the Hall of Joyful Nurturing) further emphasizes, “Although it is said that one should cultivate both nature and destiny, in truth the refining of the mind is what is essential … otherwise, if one merely refines the elixir without first refining the mind, I have yet to see anyone who attains realization” (雖曰性命雙修，其實煉心為要……不然，只徒煉丹，不先煉心，吾未見有成也) (ZW, vol. 25, p. 706), insisting that mind-nature refinement is paramount. If mind-nature remains impure, even esoteric methods will not avail. As The Daoyan qianjin shuo 道言淺近說 (Plain and Accessible Sayings on the Dao) attributes to Zhang Sanfeng (張三丰), “For a great cultivator who seeks the precelestial external medicine, it is essential to refine the self in order to await the arising of yang … otherwise, the sword of wisdom will have no edge, the host of demons will cause harm, and mind and spirit will be restless, so that mercury and fire fly wildly and the sacred embryo fails to form.” (大修行人欲求先天 外药，必炼己以待阳生……則慧劍無鋒，群魔為害，心神不寧……致使汞火飛揚，聖胎不結) (ZW, vol. 5, p. 469). Thus, imperfect self-cultivation is the root of mo and loss of control over fire phases.

Second, loss of mind-spirit, that is, failure of true intent regulation, undermines the fine-tuned control of the neidan process. On the foundation of xinggong, neidan practice relies heavily on true intent as the pivotal mechanism for regulating the mind and body system and managing the timing of internal alchemical processes. Yang Daosheng (陽道生) notes, “The whole work of fire phases lies in exerting effort at the level of thought”, emphasizing that fire control depends entirely on the focus of the mind. Chen Xubai (陳虛白) adds, “Thoughts should not be stirred; once they arise, the breath grows coarse. Intent must not be allowed to scatter; once it scatters, the fire turns cold” (念不可起，念起則息粗；意不可散，意散則火冷), revealing that imbalance of mind leads to either restless or cold fire. True fire control is attained only by following the middle path of neither forgetting nor forcing. (勿忘勿助) (Ding 2013). The Zhenquan 真詮 (True Exegesis) uses the metaphor “The eight gates are to be securely locked and shut” (八門牢鎖閉), requiring utterly pure thoughts and inwardly guarded consciousness, for “To stir even the slightest stray thought is already to loosen the seal, and the medicine will escape” (興一毫雜念即是封閉不固，藥物走失矣) (ZW, vol. 10, pp. 865–66). A single stray thought scatters pneuma and disperses the elixir. Xue Zixian (薛紫賢真人) further clarifies, “Breath arises from the mind; when the mind is tranquil, the breath is regulated, and as each breath returns to the root, it becomes the mother of the Golden Elixir” (息從心起，心靜息調，息息歸根，金丹之母) (Z. Xu 1990), establishing the principle of guiding pneuma with spirit, and stabilizing breath with pneuma. If mind-spirit loses its anchor and true intent fails to coalesce, fire phases cannot be regulated, directly precipitating Zouhuo.

Third, improper fire phases, understood as failure to master timing, disrupt the core regulatory mechanism of neidan. Fire phases are the core regulatory mechanism of neidan, requiring precise control of intensity and timing. The Wuzhen pian states, “Even if one is well acquainted with cinnabar and black lead, without understanding the fire phases it is all in vain” (縱識朱砂及黑鉛，不知火候也如閒) (ZW, vol. 5, p. 802), stressing that ignorance of fire phases renders all efforts futile, while Xiao Liaozhen (蕭了真) likewise cautioned, “If one does not know when to stop and be content, one is bound to topple into danger.” (不知止足必倾危) (Z. Xu 1990). Forcing progress through improper fire phases or advancing before the proper time inevitably disturbs the pneuma dynamics, in mild cases causing pneuma stagnation and in severe cases agitating mind-spirit, giving rise to delusions and emotional turbulence, ultimately resulting in loss of control.

Fourth, disturbance of mind-spirit by illusory realms functions as the immediate trigger of deviation. When the three preceding imbalances converge, they most readily precipitate entry into illusory realms. The Zhonglv Chuandao ji warns, “Yin ghosts and external demons arise as realms produced by intention and are taken to be demonic hosts … one may thereby lose oneself to heterodox paths and ultimately be unable to attain immortality” (陰鬼外魔，因意生境，以為魔軍……或失身外道，以至不能成仙), showing that shadowy spirits and external demons are born of the mind’s own projections and disturb the spirit (Z. Xu 1990). Mistaking such visions for true realms leads to attachment, cognitive distortion, and eventual loss of self-control, culminating in rumo. Illusory disturbances thus represent not an independent cause, but the concentrated eruption of the prior three imbalances—serving as the immediate trigger for zouhuo rumo.

All four causes ultimately stem from an imbalance of mind-nature. The operational sequence of true intent → fire phases → pneuma mechanism → illusory realm functions merely as an amplifier and outward expression of this inner disequilibrium.

It is evident that the Daoist system of dual cultivation is a progressive process of physical and mental transformation. Rooted in the cultivation of mind-nature, it gradually guides the refinement and sublimation of vital energy. Within this framework, self-cultivation, regulating the mind, and guarding the intent form the core of xinggong, while regulating the breath and nourishing the pneuma constitute minggong (命功, cultivation of destiny force) under its direction. Together they form a tightly integrated mind and body cultivation system (Ge 2001b). Alchemical texts make clear that dual cultivation is not merely a technical procedure but a holistic philosophy of health centered on the mind, with the ultimate goal of purifying and transcending mind-nature. Precisely because mind-nature is the pivot and destination of the entire process, Daoist masters repeatedly stress that fire phases lie in the mind and the elixir is refined in the spirit. Mastery of fire phases is thus both a technical key and a direct test of the practitioner’s inner concentration and resolve (Hu 1996, 1997).

Zouhuo rumo occurs when this balance collapses—not as an isolated mishap but as the cumulative result of unstable xinggong, failure of true intent, and disordered fire phases, culminating in cognitive and spiritual disequilibrium. As a Daoist term, it fuses cultivation experience, medical pathology, and religious symbolism, effectively outlining a model of mind-induced illness; unchecked desires, attachments, and fears drive the loss of mind-spirit and disruption of pneuma dynamics, leading to profound psychosomatic crises. At the same time, this concept underscores Daoism’s health philosophy, which places mental regulation and mind and body harmony at the very heart of spiritual practice.

3. Prevention and Transformation of Zouhuo Rumo: Mind-Nature-Based Inner Regulation and the Daoist Logic of Mokao

Taoist neidan represents the concrete unfolding of the transcendence of mind-nature at the level of religious cultivation. Though centered on the dual cultivation of xing and ming, the agent capable of such cultivation ultimately resides in the mind. Thus, at the deepest level, both xing and ming cultivation are rooted in cultivating the mind. The Quanzhen school’s dictum of cultivating nature before destiny reflects its keen awareness of the dangers of zouhuo rumo and establishes mind-nature cultivation as the essential point of departure (Ge 2001a).

Within the alchemical and medical framework, the danger of losing control of mind-nature receives particular emphasis. The Huangdi Yinfujing Jie 黃帝陰符經解 (Commentary on the Huangdi Yinfujing) cautions, “Even if one dwells in mountains and forests, if one does not cultivate inner breathing, this is called sitting in distraction, and one thereby loses one’s original authenticity. It is because one does not recognize the latent workings of the Five Thieves that they arise, with inner heat agitating the chest; as Zhuangzi says, this is to burn away one’s natural harmony.” (雖居山林而不内息者，名曰坐馳，且喪其天眞，是不識五賊之藴而生，内熱擾其胸中，莊子謂焚其天和爾) (DZ, vol. 2, p. 760b). This passage reflects the Daoist pathological model of the Five Thieves Stealing Pneuma (五賊盜炁), vividly describing how the unrestrained scattering of the five senses—eyes, ears, nose, tongue, and mind—disrupts the spirit and pneuma system. As a result, the true spirit loses its guard, pneuma becomes chaotic, and the five zang organs fail to store essence properly, culminating in both psychological disturbance and somatic disharmony. Daoist cultivation therefore seeks to pacify these thieves through emptiness and stillness, guarding the inner spirit with focused attention and thereby eliminating the very conditions that invite mo. Seen in this light, the Taoist paradigm of mind-nature as the foundation is not only a cosmological response but also a practical and effective mechanism for psychophysical healing. It provides the groundwork for dexing (德行, moral conduct) and the regulation of true intent, forming the essential premise for preventing and transforming zouhuo rumo. This sets up transitions into the discussion of the three-dimensional system below, where Taoism weaves together mind-nature, dexing, and true intent into a dynamically stable framework for healthy, balanced cultivation.

3.1. Threefold System of Cultivation: Rooted in Mind-Nature, Guarded by Dexing, Guided by True Intent

The Daoist perspective on health is not merely a technique for harmonizing body and mind, but rather a holistic life system centered on mind-nature, nurturing both mind and body. Its aim is to achieve alignment between life and the Great Dao through cultivation. Cultivation does not involve imposing external concepts upon the body; rather, it constructs the body itself as a symbol that communicates with the Dao (Pregadio 2021). In this sense, the Daoist cultivation system can be understood as a threefold structure in which mind-nature provides the foundation, dexing establishes an ethical safeguard, and true intent regulates the rhythms of body and mind. Accordingly, the discussion proceeds at three levels, moving from mind-nature as the internal foundation to dexing as ethical protection, and finally to true intent as the regulator of mind–body rhythms.

First, mind-nature functions as the foundation and core axis of neidan cultivation. The mind serves both as the ontological essence of cultivation and the active agent capable of cultivating both xing and ming. It is the pivotal mechanism governing spirit-pneuma and regulating the rhythms of body and mind. The Zuo Wang Lun 坐忘論 (Essay on Sitting in Oblivion) states, “The mind is the vessel of the Dao; when emptiness and stillness reach their utmost, the Dao dwells within and wisdom arises.” (心為道之器宇，虛靜至極則道居而慧生) (DZ, vol. 22, p. 896a). The Qingjing Jing 清静经 (Scripture of Clarity and Quiescence) likewise declares, “Observe the mind within; the mind has no mind of its own.” (內觀其心，心無其心) (DZ, vol. 17, p. 158a). This practice of observing the mind (觀心) goes beyond psychological purification, establishing the experiential basis for the mind to govern shen and pneuma and thus laying the foundation of xinggong.

Neidan follows a progressive path from lianjing huaqi (煉精化氣, refining essence into qi) to lianqi huashen (煉氣化神, refining qi into spirit) and then to lianshen huanxu (煉神還虛, refining spirit back to emptiness). The key transition at each stage is grounded in cultivating the mind. Mind-nature is not only the theoretical starting point of Daoist health philosophy but also the central axis of practice. Whether engaging in dual cultivation, harmonizing spirit and pneuma, or regulating emotions and conduct, all require a state of illumined mind-nature (明心) as the fundamental precondition. It is precisely this mind-nature-as-foundation structure that sustains the overall stability of the Daoist health system and paves the way for the integration of dexing and true intent in the following dimensions.

Second, dexing functions as a safeguard, building an ethical field to prevent deviation. Building on the foundation of mind-nature, Daoism establishes an external mechanism for guarding against danger through the ethical cultivation of dexing. Dexing is not an imposed moral code but the natural outward expression of an inwardly clear heart. The Taishang ganying pian 太上感應篇 (Tractate of the Most High on Action and Response) states, “When the mind is aroused toward the good, even before the good has actually been done, auspicious spirits are already in attendance.” (夫心起於善，善雖未為，而吉神已隨之) (DZ, vol. 27, p. 140c). Here, the arising of goodness refers not only to ethical action but also to the spontaneous manifestation of inner clarity. Shangyangzi (上陽子) says, “In the work of refining the self, virtuous conduct comes first.” (煉己之功，德行為先) (Z. Xu 1990) Through the cultivation of virtue, practitioners build an internalized system of ethical homeostasis upon the foundation of the heart and mind. This dimension not only guards against errors in cultivation but also enacts the Daoist principle of mind-nature as the foundation, completing the transformation from recognizing the Dao-heart to embodying virtuous conduct.

Dexing thus functions both as an aid to cultivating the mind and as the measure of its efficacy. When the heart is clouded, conduct strays; as virtue deepens, it nourishes the mind, calms spirit, and stabilizes pneuma, harmonizing xing and ming. Daoist texts also stress virtue as protection against external mo disturbance. The Wuzhen pian warns, “If one has not accumulated conduct and cultivated hidden virtue, at every movement a host of demons will arise as hindering conditions.” (若非積行修陰德，動有群魔作障緣). “Demonic obstacles may be allotted by Heaven, but cultivation rests with oneself; if hidden virtue is not practiced, one will encounter obstruction at every turn.” (魔障在天，修持在我.陰德不施，觸途有礙) (DZ, vol. 2, p. 1008a/vol. 3, p. 20c). Daoism thus regards virtue as an inner moral energy field, a religious practice that wards off demons, protects the body, and stabilizes the spirit.

For this reason, Daoism places refining oneself at the core of moral cultivation: practitioners are to examine themselves, restrain desires, and take virtue as their standard. When the field of virtue is strong, the heart naturally realigns and leaves no opening for external demons. Shangyangzi (上陽子) cautions, “For a great cultivator whose own accumulation of merit is not yet full, it is rare not to be attacked by external demons. If one can turn one’s thought back in self-reflection, arousing great patience in the face of insult and vigorous effort, then demonic obstacles are transformed into hidden virtue. “(大修行人，自己積德未充，鮮不為外魔所攻. 若能回思內省，發大忍辱精進，則魔障化為陰德) (DZ, vol. 2, p. 1008a). In this way, adversity itself becomes a catalyst for deeper practice—turning obstacles into hidden blessings and making trials into aids on the path.

Third, true intent functions as the regulator and pivot of mind and body rhythms. If mind-nature is the foundation of cultivation and dexing its ethical safeguard, then true intent is the pivotal regulator governing the ascent and descent of pneuma and the rhythms of mind and body. Da Yi Tong Jie 大易通解 (Comprehensive Explanation of the Great Changes) states, “In heaven, it is the celestial center; in man, it is the true intent. The great elixir ascends and descends through the rotation of true intent, just as the celestial wheel circulates through the celestial center; both follow the same principle.” (在天為天心，在人為真意.大藥憑真意之轉旋而升降，猶天輪藉天心之斡運而循環，皆一理也) (DZ, vol. 5, p. 870–71). This clarifies the central role of true intent in the mind and body system; just as the celestial wheel depends on the celestial center for its rotation, the ascent and descent of spirit-pneuma in internal alchemy depends on true intent for its regulation and guidance.

The Chenxubai Guizhong Zhinan 陈虚白规中指南 (Chen Xubai’s Guide to Keeping to the Mean) likewise states, “If a single thought arises, the fire blazes; if intent scatters, the fire grows cold.” (念不可起，念起則火炎；意不可散，意散則火冷) (DZ, vol. 4, p. 390c). This warns that fluctuations in thought and intention can disrupt fire phases and throw the alchemical process out of balance. Xianfo hezong 仙佛合宗 (Synthesis of Immortals and Buddhas) states, “Turning the gaze back to illuminate within is precisely the subtle functioning of true intent: yuanshen (元神, original spirit) in its unmoving state is the substance, while true intent in its responsive resonance is the function. Yuanshen and true intent are, in essence, one and the same.” (返觀內照，即真意之妙用也.蓋元神不動為體，真意感通為用.元神，真意，本一物也). This shows that true intent is not a product of acquired thought but the innate single-mindedness (先天一意) arising from a clear and luminous mind-nature. Its primary function is to govern spirit and pneuma, regulate fire phases, and through regulated breathing and inward guarding, bring mind-spirit (心神) into a state of emptiness, stillness, and clarity. Daoist texts repeatedly caution that fluctuations of intent disturb the fire. Excessive tension causes restless fire; slackness leads to cold fire. Thus only by maintaining moderation in urgency and the principle of neither forgetting nor forcing (勿忘勿助) can one attain the true fire. Zhu Yuanyu (朱元育) emphasized, “When preserving the spirit within the alchemical crucible, one must guard it with true intent … if true intent departs from its proper place, there is danger of confusion and loss.” (存神丹局，當以真意守之……若真意一離本位，恐有昏迷走失之患). He further advised that one must hold the golden light with single-minded steadfastness, unmoving even unto death—then all demonic states will naturally retreat.

In sum, true intent functions as the inward regulator that integrates contemplation, controls the fluctuations of spirit and pneuma, harmonizes the rhythms of body and mind, and guards against deviation. Its foundation lies in the clarity of mind-nature, and its safeguard stems from the strength of dexing. When mind-nature is clear, true intent does not scatter; when dexing is firm, fire phases can be adjusted with precision. Together, these three dimensions form a mutually reinforcing triadic framework that stabilizes Daoist cultivation and ensures the realization of dual cultivation and the unity of Dao and self.

3.2. From Rumo to Illumined Mind-Nature: The Logic of Mokao as Crisis and Transformation

Within the Daoist internal alchemy system, zouhuo rumo is not merely an indication of error in practice but a deeper, systemic syndrome. At this stage, there is genuine risk of the practitioner’s entire cultivation collapsing, yet it also contains the potential for a decisive breakthrough, an opportunity for the elevation and refinement of mind-nature. As noted above, the root cause lies in a dynamic imbalance of the threefold system—impure mind-nature, unstable dexing, and loss of true intent. This imbalance goes beyond technical mistakes in fire phases or breath control and reflects deeper psychological factors such as weakened will, unchecked desire, and cognitive distortion.

From this perspective, the Daoist notion of mokao is an inner testing ground where latent attachments and deluded thoughts surface and become fully conscious as xinmo. Rather than obstacles to be feared, they are moments for clarifying the mind and strengthening the will, forming a process of therapeutic introspection and gradual self-transcendence. The Dongxuan Jinyu Ji 洞玄金玉集 (Collected Gold and Jade of the Cavern Mystery) cautions, “Whether walking, standing, sitting, or lying down, day or night, one must guard the mind” (住行坐臥，晝夜志防心) (DZ, vol. 25, p. 620c), emphasizing the pervasiveness and subtlety of xinmo that demands constant vigilance. In this sense, demons are not purely evil or pathological. They are intrinsic to the cultivation path and serve as tests that temper and refine the practitioner. Daoism speaks of the coexistence of mo and enlightenment (魔象共存), acknowledging that no path of cultivation is free from the trials of mo. The Tianxian Zhengli notes that in the later stages of practice, external phenomena become numerous, including visions, voices, delusive thoughts, tests by immortals, or demonic attempts to steal the true essence. All such phenomena must be dispelled through righteous mindfulness. “By refining pneuma into spirit with righteous mindfulness alone, one naturally reaches the state of breath ceasing, free from demons.” (一切俱以正念掃除，只用正念煉氣化神，自然得至呼吸絕而無魔矣) (Z. Xu 1990). This underscores that meditative stability and correct mindfulness are the decisive means for overcoming demonic obstacles.

Master Qiu Chuji (丘處機) taught from experience: “Each time a demonic trial passes, blessings grow; ten trials pass, tenfold blessings increase. With each trial overcome, the heart becomes more luminous, the spirit more transparent.” (魔過一次，長福力一次；魔過十次，長福力十次.每過一番魔，心地愈加光明，性靈愈加通透) (ZW, vol. 5, p. 844). In this sense, mo becomes a mirror for self-examination, revealing which attachments remain and which desires must be relinquished. This marks the shift in Daoist thought from expelling demons to refining demons—not suppressing or fleeing from inner conflict but facing and integrating it. Through the process of recognizing, observing, and transforming mo, Daoism turns the crisis of zouhuo rumo into a catalyst for illumined mind-nature.

Facing the predicament posed by zouhuo rumo, Daoism developed a systematic framework of healing wisdom. Its core mechanism is articulated through a threefold path: Spirit Preservation and Breath Stabilization, Inner Vision and Self-Reflection, and Transforming Form and Refining Essence. This threefold path unfolds through three interrelated stages, forming a coherent therapeutic logic of prevention, recovery, and transcendence for addressing the phenomenon of mokao in Daoist practice. Together, these stages provide a progressive process that first guards against imbalance, then restores mental and spiritual order, and ultimately leads to self-transcendence.

3.2.1. Spirit Preservation and Breath Stabilization—Consolidating the Foundation and Preventing Deviations

Before entering deep stages of cultivation, Daoism emphasizes consolidating the foundation and nurturing the root (固本培元) as the essential groundwork. This involves self-refinement and virtue cultivation to prevent the emergence of xinmo.

The Tianxian Zhengli Qianshuo 天仙正理淺說 (Plain Explanation of the Orthodox Principles of Celestial Immortality) states, “When the mind is firmly settled, attaining tranquility becomes easy.” (定心堅確，乃得定易) (Z. Xu 1990). This indicates that by guarding the mind and maintaining resolve early on—ensuring that the spirit does not scatter—the subsequent processes of refinement can proceed smoothly. Zhang Boduan likewise writes, “The cultivator of truth exhausts the origins of creation and knows the paths of ascent and descent. By settling the spirit and calming the breath, with not a single thought arising, serene and free from desire, the spirit and vital energy circulate freely, and creation naturally unfolds.” (修真之士，窮造化之原，知升降之路，但安神定息，一念不生，湛然無欲，則神氣周流，自然造化) (DZ, vol. 4, p. 720b). This underscores that ding is the root of attaining the Way of Dao. Psychologically, it functions by clarifying intention and establishing a stable mental state. Wu Shouyang further instructs, “During the refinement of essence, true intent must observe throughout the hundred days of essence refinement … The same is required for refining pneuma and refining spirit.” (煉精之時，真意觀照於煉精之百日……煉氣、煉神皆需如此) (Z. Xu 1990). This highlights that true intent must be consistently maintained to prevent the mind from straying.

At this stage, the most crucial task is Spirit Preservation and Breath Stabilization, which establishes mental equilibrium and harmonizes mind-nature. The maxim “Use spirit to guide pneuma, and pneuma to return to spirit” (以神馭氣，以氣返神) succinctly expresses the preventive and healing foundation of the entire process, which leads naturally to the next step, Inner Vision and Self-Reflection.

3.2.2. Inner Vision and Self-Reflection—Introspection and Self-Reflection for Restoring Balance

When practitioners encounter mojing (魔境, demonic states) during cultivation, falling into a state where reality and illusion blur, Daoism prescribes Inner Vision and Self-Reflection as the means to repair mind-nature and restore cognitive stability.

The Changdao Zhenyan states, “The method of fire regulation lies only in mastering stillness through inner observation, enabling true pneuma to circulate without cease.” (火候之法，不過主靜內觀，使真氣運行不止而已). Here, jing (靜, stillness) does not signify mere bodily immobility but inner clarity and focused will. The Yushu jingyue 玉樞經籥 (Key to the Jade Pivot Scripture) likewise instructs, “When inner demons arise, the practitioner subdues them with wisdom, cultivates profoundly, and realizes inwardly, as a mother guards her child” (學道之士，於心魔起時，用智慧降伏，深修密證，如母護子也). This highlights the joint function of wisdom and steadfast resolve (定志); through preserving the clarity of mind, illusions dissolve and balance is restored.

In Daoism, inner vision is not simply seated meditation but a transformative process of religious cognition. By means of true intent, conscious activity is unified, preventing stray thoughts from gaining entry. The Xianfo Hezong repeatedly reminds, “From beginning to end, do not depart from this inner observation and self-reflection.” (自始至終，不離此內觀返照) (Z. Xu 1990). The subtle function of true intent lies in Inner Vision and Self-Reflection—recognizing emotions as they arise, then guiding them toward a state of emptiness and stillness.

This mechanism aligns closely with the emotional regulation and cognitive restructuring framework in modern psychology. At the emotional level, Spirit Preservation and Breath Stabilization serves to calm anxiety and restore inner balance. At the cognitive level, Inner Vision and Self-Reflection reshapes the practitioner’s interpretation of both inner states and external circumstances, thereby reestablishing harmony between mind and spirit (Ding et al. 2020).

3.2.3. Transformation of Form and Refinement of Essence—Transformation and Self-Transcendence

After completing the stages of Spirit Preservation and Breath Stabilization and Inner Vision and Self-Reflection, practitioners who have undergone the tempering of mokao may enter a higher stage of spiritual sublimation and cognitive restructuring, namely, Transformation of Form and Refinement of Essence.

The Dadan Zhizhi cautions, “Fearing practitioners might mistake demonic visions for the true path, squandering effort and undoing prior progress, these demonic states are described in detail. When cultivation matures and inner contemplation disperses demons, the spirit gathers and merges into the celestial palace, brilliant beyond measure. Yet even this must not be mistaken for the realm of immortals; thus, the secret of shedding the shell is again revealed. “(恐認魔境，流入邪道，徒勞心力，廢墮前功……並入天宮，繁華萬倍，猶恐認為仙境，不免再陳棄殼之訣)” (DZ, vol. 4, p. 402b). This warns against the cognitive error of mistaking demonic manifestations for divine realms, insisting that practitioners must uphold true intent and remain unmoved, even amid dazzling inner visions. Constant awareness and inward observation prevent the mind from scattering, enabling the leap from mere experiential cognition to contemplating the Dao in samadhi.

“Through prolonged cultivation, pneuma and spirit become complete; the true person is formed, and corpse-insects vanish of their own accord. “(久煉氣神全，真人身成，尸蟲自去也)” (DZ, vol. 20, p. 6c). This depicts the resolution of body–mind duality and the realization of transforming demons into the Dao. Li Hanxu (李涵虚) outlines a comprehensive Nine Levels of Cultivating the Mind (九層煉心) system—including collecting the mind, advancing pneuma, forming and returning the elixir, nurturing warmth, and refining emptiness, tracing the full arc from initial mental regulation to spiritual transcendence. Its core is refining oneself, ensuring the steadiness of practice and facilitating the leap in mind-nature.

The Zhouyi Cantongqi succinctly states, “Transform form and become immortal; sink into silent stillness.” (化形而仙，淪寂無聲) (DZ, vol. 20, p. 130b). This expresses the ultimate state of the union of body and spirit, transcending form and sound to reach the Daoist ideal of the silent and formless realm. The Ling Sha Da Dan Mi Jue 靈砂大丹秘訣 (The Secret of the Spirit Sand Elixir) echoes, “He who attains my transformation alters his essence” (得我化形能改質) (DZ, vol. 19, p. 46a). Transformation signifies liberation from attachment to form, while altering essence points to a fundamental ontological leap. Guided by true intent, practitioners integrate primordial essence, pneuma, and spirit, restructuring the life-energy system and transcending material constraints. This stage fulfills the dual cultivation of xing and ming and brings the practitioner into the unity of Dao and self—providing the ultimate completion of the regulatory process initiated by Inner Vision and Self-Reflection.

From a modern psychological perspective, the Daoist response to mokao unfolds through the three-step path of ding, guan, and hua (定、觀、化, stabilization, observation, and transformation). This sequence parallels the integrated psychological mechanism of emotional regulation, cognitive restructuring, and behavioral reorientation. At the stabilization stage (ding), practices such as refining oneself and virtue refinement consolidate the foundation and prevent the arising of xinmo, effectively limiting maladaptive behavioral tendencies. At the observation stage (guan), Inner Vision and Self-Reflection and the focusing of true intent regulate emotions and reframe cognition, restoring mental clarity and harmonizing mind-spirit (Wen 2025). At the transformation stage (hua), Transformation of Form and Refinement of Essence guides the practitioner toward spiritual sublimation, corresponding to states of self-transcendence and cognitive elevation.

Taken together, these three dimensions form a coherent, progressively integrated system. The mokao mechanism thus functions not only as a religious explanation of cultivation risks but also as a sophisticated model of psychological regulation: preventing deviation through ding, repairing cognition through guan, and achieving transcendence through hua. This threefold framework demonstrates Daoism’s unique therapeutic potential and offers a fruitful avenue for dialogue between traditional cultivation practices and modern psychological science.

4. From Crisis to Growth: Daoist Zouhuo Rumo as a Framework for Contemporary Psychological Healing

This chapter reexamines zouhuo rumo within the Daoist neidan framework and presents it as a dynamic process that can move from crisis to growth. In Daoist terms, such states are read as mokao: necessary tests that expose imbalance yet also contain the possibility of elevating mind-nature. Building on this view, the chapter situates modern pathologization of religious experience within its cultural context and introduces spiritual crisis as a framework for dialogue. It then outlines a Daoist-informed healing model, centered on the transformation of zouhuo rumo into a process of self-reflection and inner realignment, and offers a complementary, culturally grounded lens for contemporary psychological healing.

4.1. Spiritual Crisis as a Framework for Dialogue Between Psychology and Daoism

In psychology, particularly in analytical psychology pioneered by Jung and later developed in transpersonal psychology, a comprehensive theoretical framework has been formed to interpret deviations in spiritual experience. This framework does not pathologize such phenomena but reframes them as transformative crises. It opens the possibility of a constructive dialogue with Daoist interpretations of zouhuo rumo, allowing both perspectives to shed light on one another and jointly reframe these experiences beyond a purely clinical view.

Carl Jung developed a comparative interpretive framework for Daoist cultivation experience, especially in his commentary on the Daoist classic, Taiyi Jinhua Zongzhi 太乙金華宗旨 (The Secret of the Golden Flower). He interpreted neidan cultivation as a process of psychological integration structurally parallel to the individuation process (Zhang and Huang 2025), understanding the demonic obstacles (魔障) encountered in practice as crises of projection produced by repressed unconscious content. He further regarded the key Daoist notion of inner vision as a psychological mechanism that reorients consciousness toward the unconscious, and saw the text’s mandala diagrams as protective structures that symbolically build a spiritual boundary around the Self, preventing the leakage of vital spirit (元神) and warding off disturbance. In Jung’s view, such crises emerge from the loss of unity between life and consciousness in modernity, and Daoist introspective practice offers a means to heal this rift by reintegrating life and mind through a process of repairing comparable to a mandala (Jung and Wilhelm 2016).

On Jung’s account, experiences of mo can be understood as projective crises in which unresolved unconscious contents break into consciousness in distorted forms. When individuals refuse to acknowledge the unconscious and imagine themselves free from its influence, psychic energy loses integration and seeks release through disruptive and potentially destructive expressions, such as feelings of persecution, collective delusions, or widespread psychological disturbance. Jung emphasized that overcoming the mo experience cannot rely on rational decision-making alone. It requires sustained inner cultivation and deep psychological preparation, particularly the relinquishment of attachment and desire, in order to restore balance and integrity to the psyche. The “veil of the demon” cannot be removed by shortcuts or clever techniques; only through patient and thorough self-confrontation can consciousness attain integration and transcendence (Jung and Wilhelm 2016).

This understanding resonates closely with the Daoist view of spiritual practice. Daoist neidan teachings likewise identify imbalance of mind-nature as the root of zouhuo rumo and advocate guarding true intent and cultivating spontaneity and non-action as ways to prevent the dissipation and disorder of vital energy. Jung’s warning against superficial imitation of Eastern practices reminds us that pursuing advanced spiritual experiences without genuine psychological preparation risks intensifying internal conflict and precipitating more severe crises. This complementary interpretive framework helped pave the way for transpersonal psychology, which regards crises in spiritual practice not as pathological breakdowns or external invasions but as integral phases of psychic integration. When properly recognized and worked through, these ordeals can become catalysts for higher spiritual transformation and self-transcendence.

On the path opened by Jung, scholars observed that intense transcendental experiences such as deep meditation or near-death experiences can trigger profound psychological transformation. Psychologists including Stanislav Grof subsequently introduced the concept of spiritual crisis, challenging the diagnostic stereotype that equates religious experience with mental illness (Jian 2011). The term spiritual emergency itself draws on the dual meaning of the Chinese word 危機 (weiji, crisis), which connotes both danger and opportunity, underscoring that such episodes can become pivotal moments of personal transformation. A spiritual crisis refers to conflicts and disturbances that emerge across bodily, cognitive, and affective dimensions during rapid shifts in consciousness or spiritual awakening, including perceptual distortions, emotional upheavals, and marked detachment from everyday reality. Meditation-induced dysphoric syndromes have been specifically discussed under the term Meditation-Induced Syndrome, highlighting their prevalence among practitioners (Lukoff et al. 1998).

Structurally, these states closely resemble the traditional Chinese notion of zouhuo rumo, where overexertion or improper methods in neidan practice disturb the flow of pneuma and disrupt the yin–yang equilibrium, producing hallucinations, delusions, mental confusion, or even severe psychophysical collapse. Though their presentation is chaotic, such experiences should not be reduced to psychotic illness or external demonic attack; they often represent a process of inner reorganization. Individuals in spiritual crisis frequently report anomalous perceptions or inner voices, which are easily misdiagnosed as hallucinations but are in fact integral to the transformation process. The root of this imbalance lies in the individual’s difficulty in making sense of or containing such overwhelming experiences. When supported in a safe environment, these crises can become catalysts for growth, a painful yet necessary labor that facilitates personality maturation and self-transcendence.

Although their manifestations may resemble psychiatric disorders, their motivational structure and experiential meaning are fundamentally different from conventional pathological conditions. In recent decades, psychology has increasingly recognized these differences and called for interpretive frameworks that regard such crises as potential opportunities for development rather than mere breakdowns. This paradigm shift provides an important theoretical basis for reexamining zouhuo rumo within Daoist neidan cultivation, situating it within a broader model of spiritual transformation rather than simply a medicalized pathology.

Modern psychiatry and psychology, after reflecting on the notion of spiritual crisis, have gradually shifted their attention toward cultural contexts. Daoism, by contrast, has long taken an inclusive and active approach to addressing deviations in spiritual practice and crises of consciousness. Although their points of departure differ, both traditions converge on a shared trajectory of preventing deviation, accepting crisis, and achieving integration The introduction of the concept of spiritual crisis is particularly significant; within Western academic discourse, it provides a non-pathologizing theoretical counterpart to phenomena such as zouhuo rumo. While recognizing the confusion and suffering these experiences entail, it highlights their latent potential for transformation. It suggests that, when supported within an appropriate environment, such crises can serve as catalysts for personality maturation and self-transcendence. In this sense, spiritual crisis is more than a diagnostic label; it offers a valuable framework for dialogue, enabling the insights of Daoist tradition and modern psychology to be set in conversation. Through this bridge, we are better positioned to develop a healing model that both respects Daoist heritage and remains applicable within contemporary contexts.

4.2. Threefold Zouhuo Rumo in the Modern Context: Between Pathologization and Understanding

Building on this framework of spiritual crisis, this section returns to the Daoist concept of zouhuo rumo and examines how it has been understood in the modern clinical and cultural contexts.

Since the early 20th century, there has been a notable increase in cases of physical and psychological disturbances associated with spontaneous spiritual practices. Modern medicine and psychiatry began to take interest in these phenomena, bringing them into the framework of clinical observation and pathological classification for the first time. This development marked an important step in situating spiritual practice deviations within the field of scientific analysis. At the same time, it revealed a key challenge: when such experiences are interpreted solely through a biomedical lens, their cultural context and spiritual meaning may be overlooked, resulting in potential misdiagnosis and the risk of stigmatization (Lucchetti et al. 2021).

In clinical observations, failures in spiritual practice are frequently accompanied by marked disturbances in cognition and emotion, including cognitive dissonance, emotional dysregulation, and experiences of depersonalization or dissociation. Such symptom patterns are often misdiagnosed as schizophrenia or bipolar disorder, reinforcing a pervasive tendency toward pathologization, in which complex religious experiences are reduced to psychiatric disorders presumed to require pharmacological intervention (Lukoff et al. 2011). This dynamic may be rooted in the intense shifts in consciousness and psychosomatic disequilibrium characteristic of advanced cultivation states, placing the practitioner in a crisis condition at the threshold of consciousness expansion. This diagnostic dilemma highlights the tension between medical and religious interpretive frameworks and underscores the limitations of a strictly biomedical model. Misdiagnosis not only strips these experiences of their cultural and spiritual context but also forecloses their potential as catalysts for healing and transformation. In response to such concerns, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV) introduced the landmark category Religious or Spiritual Problem (Frances et al. 1995), a move that was further elaborated in the DSM-5-TR through the inclusion of the Cultural Formulation Interview (CFI). Under this updated approach, phenomena such as hallucinations are not to be hastily classified as severe psychopathology when they can be interpreted as culturally congruent experiences (First 2024). These revisions aim to reduce inappropriate treatment and encourage clinicians to engage with the subjective meaning and spiritual significance of these states. Taken together, this development represents not only greater openness toward religious experience but also a shift in clinical psychology from mere explanation to deeper understanding.

As a key concept in traditional Chinese religious practice, zouhuo rumo has long been used to describe disruptions in internal alchemy caused by improper methods, unsettled mind-nature, or impatience for rapid attainment. It is neither a purely mystical experience nor simply reducible to a modern psychiatric disorder but rather a crisis of consciousness occurring at the intersection of psychological mechanisms and religious meaning structures. Its manifestations are diverse, ranging from perceptual disturbances and emotional collapse to disordered cognition. In this sense, zouhuo rumo is a phenomenon of spiritual risk that merits close examination in contemporary contexts. Interpreting it through the framework of spiritual crisis provides a way to move beyond narrow pathologizing tendencies, allowing us to revisit its internal structure, developmental dynamics, and transformative potential within religious–psychological and cultural frameworks. To understand this phenomenon more fully, it is necessary to construct a bridge for dialogue that can traverse cultural and disciplinary boundaries.

4.3. Reframing Zouhuo Rumo: A Daoist-Inspired Healing Model

The contemporary fields of mental health and psychotherapy are undergoing a profound cultural shift. Against the backdrop of globalization and diversity, singular medical approaches increasingly struggle to adequately explain and address religious experiences situated in liminal contexts. How to rationally assess unconventional spiritual practices remains a major challenge in modern clinical treatment. In this context, Daoism’s response pathway warrants particular attention.

Unlike modern medicine’s intervention model, which centers on disease naming and symptom suppression, Daoism has long recognized that deviations in body and mind during spiritual cultivation are often inevitable stages of the process. Such deviations are not seen as irreversible pathologies, but rather as temporary imbalances arising from disrupted internal rhythms, unstable mental states, or insufficient moral grounding. Accordingly, Daoism does not frame these phenomena as illnesses, but refers to them as dangers requiring vigilance (防慮危險). Zhang boduan (張伯端) admonishes, “Before refining the elixir, one must urgently cultivate; after refining, one must know when to stop. If one clings to fullness without restraint, one will inevitably face peril and disgrace.” (未炼还丹须急炼，炼了还须知止足.若也持盈未已心，不免一朝遭殆辱.此论防危虑险，盖转返覆之机) (DZ, vol. 4, p. 737a). This highlights that such crises are adjustable, preventable, and ultimately transformable.

The Daoist understanding of zouhuo rumo operates on three interrelated levels. First, by labeling it a danger rather than a disease, it resists the medicalization of spiritual crises. Second, it stresses prevention over cure, advocating the cultivation of virtue and rhythmic self-regulation to avert such abnormalities. Third, it offers concrete techniques of inner vision and maintaining true intent to achieve mind–body integration and to transform peril into peace. More significantly, Daoism regards demonic states not merely as a pathology but as a mokao that can lead to a higher level of self-cultivation. If a practitioner can recognize, master, and transmute the demonic forces, this very trial becomes the site for spiritual reconstruction and elevation. Within the neidan tradition, such phenomena are framed as crises of mind-nature with transformative potential. Through interpretive practices such as Inner Vision and Self-Reflection, ritual and scriptural resources, and community-based mechanisms like master–disciple transmission and communal cultivation, practitioners are equipped to navigate and transcend these experiences.

This framework of internalizing and transforming spiritual crises offers a systematic, indigenous model for meaning construction like meaning-making and depathologization in culturally sensitive psychotherapy. A Daoist healing model grounded in zouhuo rumo not only updates Daoist therapeutic philosophy but also addresses the growing global call for indigenous frameworks in mental health. Rooted in coherent doctrine and historical ritual experience, it continues to offer guidance for contemporary healing.

Drawing on Daoist cultural and therapeutic traditions, this paper proposes a modern healing framework grounded in three interrelated pillars: dexing as prevention, mind-nature as foundation, and true intent as regulation. While rooted in classical Daoist cultivation discourse, this model is a contemporary construction designed to offer a multidimensional structure for psychological intervention—mapping, respectively, onto prevention, regulation, and transformation. Daoist cultivation practices emphasize harmonizing pneuma as a way to achieve mental equilibrium—calming the body in order to still the mind. Spiritual crises such as zouhuo rumo are seen not as pathological failures, but as opportunities for adjustment and realignment, often resulting in improved physical health. This holistic understanding is compatible with current trends in integrative medicine and offers a culturally grounded framework for bridging Eastern wellness philosophies with Western therapeutic modalities.

As such, this proposed Daoist-informed healing model rests on both philosophical coherence and practical applicability. Its value in contemporary psychotherapy can be understood through three operational dimensions:

• Psychological resilience and social connectedness;
• Emotional regulation and mind–body integration;
• Cognitive reframing and meaning reconstruction.

4.3.1. Dexing as Prevention: Ethical Grounding and Culturally Embedded Social Support

Dexing as prevention emphasizes building an ethical safeguard where inner righteousness (正氣) and external blessings (福緣) work together through daily accumulation of virtue (積德) and acts of benevolence (濟世). This is not abstract moral preaching but a lived practice rooted in Daoist communities—temples, master–disciple transmission (師徒), and shared cultivation (同修). From the Daoist perspective, virtuous conduct nourishes pneuma (養氣) and clears karmic obstacles (清業), forming a protective field against xinmo.

From a modern psychological standpoint, this approach extends beyond conventional social support theory, functioning as a prosocial behavioral system deeply embedded in the cultural fabric. Aligning prosocial values with one’s mind-nature strengthens psychological well-being and existential coherence. Daoist-informed therapeutic models therefore move beyond symptom relief to include moral and existential growth, guiding individuals to live in harmony with the Dao, understood as both inner truth and universal principle.

This orientation aligns with Jung’s ethics of individuation, viewing the process of becoming one’s true self as a movement toward greater attunement with both the collective and the natural world. On one hand, Daoist virtue is not merely a moral obligation but an effective form of psychological hygiene, directly enhancing positive affect and resilience (Einolf 2011). On the other hand, the stable interpersonal bonds and sense of belonging created through ritualized collective life provide crucial protective factors against psychological crisis (Debnam et al. 2012). By cultivating a shared moral field and buffering stress, this virtue-centered practice strengthens the individual’s capacity to resist and transform spiritual and psychological challenges.

4.3.2. Mind-Nature as Foundation: Introspective Practice and Cognitive Restructuring

Daoism teaches the clearing of deluded thoughts and the illumination of the original mind-nature through practices such as Inner Vision and Self-Reflection and sitting in oblivion (坐忘). The aim is to observe the arising and cessation of thoughts, gaining insight into desire and attachment, thereby achieving the fundamental purification of mind-nature at its source.

This mechanism aligns closely with modern psychological concepts of metacognition and decentering as employed in third-wave Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) such as Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT) While MBCT encourages non-judgmental awareness of the present moment (Binensztok et al. 2018), Daoist Inner Vision and Self-Reflection further emphasizing transcendence of ego-attachment and the dismantling of xinmo at their root.

Daoist neidan imagery offers a rich symbolic language that helps practitioners and clients conceptualize their healing journey. Guiding images such as golden light (金光) can catalyze spiritual transformation. In therapeutic settings, such images function similarly to visualization and guided imagery techniques, enabling safe access to the unconscious. Such symbolism facilitates cognitive reappraisal and hope, transforming abstract psychological processes into concrete metaphors of healing. This process reduces maladaptive rumination, reorients perception toward the Dao, reconstructs a meaning framework beyond the small self, and ultimately enhances psychological flexibility.

4.3.3. True Intent as Regulation: An Embodied System of Dynamic Adjustment

In Daoist cultivation, true intent is the pivotal mechanism of mind–body regulation. It emphasizes perceiving and mastering fire phases to achieve dynamic balance. Here, true intent is not simply willpower but a refined capacity for interoceptive awareness and adaptive responsiveness to internal states.

This reflects a deep form of embodied wisdom. The body is no longer treated as a passive object to be controlled but as a living subject endowed with intelligence, requiring attentive listening and resonance. Such a bottom–up regulatory pathway parallels modern somatic therapies such as somatic experiencing, which work through the modulation of bodily sensations rather than directly confronting emotions. This approach offers a holistic and dynamic logic for restoring mind–body equilibrium, enhancing emotional regulation, and alleviating stress-related physiological responses (Winchester and Pagis 2022).

To translate the Daoist health framework of dexing, mind-nature, and true intent into a practical intervention model, the following structure emphasizes its integrative character. This healing model is not a linear protocol but a dynamically interwoven system in which dexing, mind-nature, and true intent mutually reinforce one another. In practice, when practitioners encounter obstacles in the subtle regulation of true intent, they return to introspection rooted in mind-nature or draw strength from the communal support and ethical cultivation embodied in dexing.

Training follows a progressive spectrum along three parallel tracks of dexing, aspiration, and technique. In the initial stage, practitioners stabilize emotional background noise through reverence and precepts while establishing an attentional anchor through shouyi (守一, guarding the one) or cunsi (存思, contemplative visualization). In the intermediate stage, attention turns to Inner Vision and Self-Reflection, gradually reducing dependence on specific imagery and shifting from holding onto an object to the capacity for self-holding. In the advanced stage, practice settles into the formless stillness of zuowang, allowing mind-spirit to stabilize naturally in a state of non-attachment. Each stage is reviewed through the Three Adjustments: whether the body is relaxed without scattering, whether breathing is continuous without stagnation, and whether intention is concentrated without tension. The core principle is to use dexing to safeguard meditative stability, set aspirations to prevent impatience, and apply technical regulation to keep fire phases properly aligned. In this way, both the prevention and correction of deviations are embedded in daily cultivation. Intervention pathways should be flexibly adjusted to individual circumstances, maintaining a holistic and culturally embedded orientation to avoid decontextualized technical application. These three dimensions are summarized in

Table 1. The three dimensions of Daoist healing.

Intervention Level	Daoist Path	Textual Foundations	Cultural-Psychological Mechanism	Target Population
Prevention	Dexing as Defense	Daodejing, Taishang Ganying Pian, and other Daoist ethical classics	Builds an ethical–protective network through prosocial practices that align inner pneuma with outer blessings, strengthening value orientation and faith support to prevent moral-behavioral deviations. Enhances positive emotions and sense of meaning; collective support buffers stress and guards against social isolation and existential anxiety.	Individuals with a faith background but not yet in deep cultivation; those undergoing major life transitions or cultural adaptation.
Transformation	Mind-nature as Foundation	Zuowang Lun, Qingjing Jing, and Daoist mind-cultivation texts on introspection	Guides practitioners to observe the flow of thoughts, deconstruct attachments, and reconstruct cognition, achieving the transformation of turning demons into the Dao and mind–body integration. Enhances metacognitive capacity, reduces maladaptive fixation, and reconstructs a value framework that promotes psychological flexibility and existential well-being.	Advanced practitioners; individuals who have experienced zouhuo rumo or spiritual crisis and seek integration and growth.
Regulation	True intent as Regulation	Wuzhen Pian, Zhouyi Cantong Qi, and modern commentaries on neidan fire phases	Trains interoceptive awareness to regulate the flow of pneuma and achieve dynamic physiological–emotional balance. Improves awareness of and adaptability to bodily–emotional states, effectively addressing emotional dysregulation and psychosomatic symptoms.	Novice meditators or practitioners experiencing emotional instability, intrusive imagery, or early signs of zouhuo rumo.

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5. Conclusions

The phenomenon of zouhuo rumo in Daoist neidan practice embodies not merely a risk of cultivation failure but a profound insight into the dynamics of consciousness, the regulation of pneuma, and the cultivation of mind-nature. Its conceptual evolution integrates energetic dysregulation caused by mismanaged fire phases with cognitive and spiritual disorientation arising from a loss of mind-spirit stability. The root of this crisis lies not in external invasion but in unresolved inner conflicts, namely, attachments, desires, and fears that crystallize into xinmo. Daoist theory maps this process along a causal chain from impure self-refinement to loss of mental integrity, to technical errors, culminating in hallucinatory disturbance and disruption of practice.

In response, Daoism developed a health paradigm centered on the triadic structure of dexing, mind-nature, and true intent, elevating the experience of crisis into a mokao, a necessary trial through which the practitioner confronts weaknesses of mind-nature and advances toward spiritual transcendence. This is operationalized through a three-stage healing path of Spirit Preservation and Breath Stabilization, Inner Vision and Self-Reflection, and Transformation of Form and Refinement of Essence, guiding the process from stabilization to introspection to transformation.

Placed in dialogue with contemporary psychological frameworks, this understanding reframes zouhuo rumo as a dynamic process with preventive, regulatory, and transformative dimensions rather than a pathological breakdown. The proposed Daoist cultural healing model translates the triadic structure into modern intervention pathways that strengthen psychological resilience, enable cognitive restructuring, and enhance embodied regulation, offering an integrative framework for mental health care.

Future research should evaluate test this model empirically, explore its integration with clinical psychology, and examine its application across cultural contexts. Such efforts may unlock the therapeutic potential embedded within Daoist tradition, allowing its wisdom to contribute to contemporary approaches to psychological healing and the cultivation of meaning in the face of crisis.