Ecotheological Implications of the Qur’anic Verses on Tawbah (Repentance): An Analysis from a Sufi Perspective

Abstract

This study examines the ecotheological implications attributed to tawbah (repentance) in the Qur’an and the interpretations of the subject by Sufi exegetes. While numerous Qur’anic verses address tawbah, some indicate that it extends beyond the forgiveness of individual sins to encompass ecological consequences. In the Sufi exegetical tradition, tawbah is interpreted as a bridge between the transformation/awareness of the heart and the divine order of nature. The central research question of this study concerns how Sufi interpretations, in light of the relevant Qur’anic verses, contribute an ecotheological perspective to human–nature relations. In this context, the transformative power of tawbah in fostering awareness of oneself and one’s environment is examined from a Sufi perspective. The secondary problem of this study is the analysis of Sufi interpretations concerning the ecological afflictions encountered by individuals and societies as a consequence of the absence of repentance, as well as the psychological states of those subjected to such afflictions. Sufi scholars fundamentally associate environmental crises with the spiritual corruption of individuals and, more broadly, society, arguing that tawbah is not merely a process of spiritual purification but also provides a foundation for developing ethical and responsible engagement with the environment. Their ecotheological interpretations demonstrate that tawbah can serve as a spiritual and ethical basis for addressing environmental problems and support environmentally oriented behavioral models.

1. Introduction

Climate change, water and air pollution, the reckless consumption of natural resources, and similar environmental crises of the modern world have become not only scientific but also moral and spiritual issues. Ecological events commonly categorized as natural phenomena—such as rain, snow, floods, earthquakes, landslides, and desertification—possess both divine and human dimensions (Grim and Tucker 2014, pp. 83–84). In this context, some studies have argued that ecological disasters should not be understood merely as the result of natural processes, but rather analyzed within the framework of human–ecology interaction (Mitchell 1999, pp. 18–20; Pelling 2003, p. 5). Indeed, ecological crises are not solely products of the natural order; they are multidimensional processes shaped by human interventions in nature, economic choices, technological applications, political decisions, and cultural value systems. Therefore, understanding ecological disasters requires a reevaluation of humanity’s ontological and ethical relationship with nature. In this respect, environmental problems are revealed to possess not only ecological but also moral, social, and theological dimensions (Evkuran 2008, p. 38).

The ecotheological approach, which constructively addresses the reciprocal relationship between religion and nature, generally centers on the connection between humanity’s spiritual/religious perspectives and the degradation or restoration of nature. One of the earliest scholars to draw attention to the spiritual dimensions of environmental crises was Seyyed Hossein Nasr. According to Nasr, in pre-modern times human beings perceived existence within a holistic, hierarchical, and ontologically sacred order; consequently, the cosmos was understood not merely as a physical universe but as a manifestation of the Divine Reality, interpreted as a form of “cosmic revelation” (Nasr 1993, pp. 66–73). Consistent with this metaphysical perspective, Islamic thought situates the principle of tawḥīd at its center, thereby establishing an organic unity between the human being, nature, and divine knowledge. In doing so, it envisions that humans live in harmony with the natural world within the framework of their existential responsibilities, and that through this harmony a cultural, metaphysical, and ethical tradition of wisdom is sustained (Nasr 1988, pp. 93–98). Several scholars further note that prominent Muslim intellectuals and academics—such as Mawil Izzi Dien, Fazlun Khalid, and Othman Llewellyn—exhibit a consistent tendency to invoke the normative framework of Islamic law (Sharīʿa) when conceptualizing ecological concerns and engaging with contemporary environmental challenges (Johnston 2012, p. 219).

The Qur’an, as the primary reference of Islamic thought, addresses the disruption of ecological balance from both divine and human dimensions, thus approaching the issue from a dual perspective (Q 2:204—205). In this context, the Qur’an explicitly emphasizes human responsibility in the emergence of environmental degradation and states that the consequences of such imbalance will ultimately return to humankind.1 Studies that examine the Qur’anic verses related to this topic often link contemporary environmental crises to human—and, more broadly, societal—spiritual degeneration, proposing a causal relationship between ecological consciousness and spiritual purification (Shahinalp 2021, vol. 33, pp. 116–19).

In modern studies that examine the issue from an Islamic perspective, human responsibility and positive contributions to ecological balance are often analyzed through concepts such as tawḥīd (divine unity), khalīfah (vicegerency), ʿubūdiyyah (servitude), and amānah (trusteeship) (Özdemir 2003, pp. 20–21; Shaleh and Islam 2024, vol. 32, p. 249). Among the thinkers who have addressed the relationship between ecology and the spiritual state of the human being within Islamic thought, Sufis hold a significant position. Although there are some studies that explore Sufi approaches to ecotheology, the literature in this field is still relatively limited and continues to develop. Most existing research investigates the human–nature relationship through core concepts in Sufi terminology and discusses how these concepts can be reinterpreted within an ecological framework (Irawan et al. 2022, pp. 82–95; Khikamuddin et al. 2024, pp. 133–59). However, in the accessible literature, it has been observed that the concept of tawbah—which plays a crucial role in shaping human responsibility toward nature and is directly linked to tangible ecological outcomes in the Qur’an—has largely been neglected. In contrast, especially among Sufi exegetes, certain Qur’anic verses related to tawbah2 have been interpreted using Sufi concepts and terminology from an ecotheological perspective. Notable among these sources are: Tafsīr al-Tustarī by Sahl al-Tustarī (d. 283 AH/896 CE), Ḥaqāʾiq al-Tafsīr by. Muḥammad b. Ḥusayn al-Sulamī (d. 412 AH/1021 CE), Laṭāʾif al-Ishārāt by ʿAbd al-Karīm al-Qushayrī (d. 465 AH/1072 CE), Taʾwīlāt by ʿAbd al-Razzāq al-Kāshānī (d. 736 AH/1335 CE) and Rūḥ al-Bayān by Ismāʿīl Ḥaqqi Bursawī (d. 1137 AH/1725 CE), all of which contain relevant insights on the topic. The primary reason for selecting these works is that they belong to the classical tradition of Sufi thought and offer a comprehensive, systematic, and holistic exegetical approach to the Qur’anic verses. This allows us both to trace the historical development of the Sufi interpretive tradition and to clearly identify the convergences and divergences in the ways these Sufi commentaries approach the verses relevant to our study.

At the core of the Islamic environmental understanding from a Sufi perspective lies the awareness of human responsibility toward the self, nature, and God. One of the most significant spiritual processes contributing to the formation of this awareness is tawbah. Although studies examining the human relationship with nature from an Islamic perspective often relate the topic to religious and Sufi concepts such as tawḥīd, khilāfah, ʿubūdiyyah, and amānah, tawbah (repentance) is positioned as the ontological and functional foundation of these concepts. In other words, tawbah serves as the central and determining driver that enables the emergence of these virtues and conscious behaviors. This study approaches the inner process of awareness initiated by tawbah in the context of how the internal order—formed through the fulfillment of the divine responsibilities entrusted to human beings—manifests itself in the external world, particularly in the ecological realm. The role of tawbah in maintaining balance on both the individual and cosmic levels, and its function in activating divine intervention, is examined in light of foundational Sufi texts. The spiritual and moral qualities and virtues that emerge in the individual after tawbah are interpreted from an ecotheological perspective. By analyzing the relationship between human beings and ecology through a tawbah-centered approach, this study—distinct from others—aims to offer both conceptual and metaphysical depth to the topic. Moreover, it is hoped that this article will contribute to the growing body of literature on eco-Sufism.

2. Tawbah and Spiritual Consciousness in Sufi Reflection

As the being entrusted with the cultivation and development of the Earth, the human being may, from time to time, commit mistakes, sins, or transgressions that harm both themselves and their environment. Such actions render the individual morally culpable and sinful in the eyes of both society and God. When the Qur’anic verses related to sin and its consequences are considered (Q 2:286; 4:31; 23:118; 25:70; 33:71), it becomes evident that God does not immediately punish sinners. On the contrary, He grants them a certain period and opportunity to make amends for their wrongdoing and to seek forgiveness.

Sufis define tawbah as the act of turning back to God with feelings of remorse for past sins, a conscious abandonment of sin in the present moment, and a sincere intention not to commit sins in the future (al-Kāshānī 1992, p. 192). Among the prominent Sufi authors, al-Ghazālī describes tawbah as a feeling of regret that arises in the heart after sinning, an awareness that sin is a perilous act which distances one from God, and a turning away from Satan toward the path that leads back to God (al-Ghazālī 1986, vol. 12, pp. 150–74). Moreover, tawbah is regarded in Sufism as the initial stage of the seeker’s spiritual journey (al-Qushayrī 1989, p. 178). According to al-Qushayrī, who offers insightful commentary on this point of departure, when a person engages in self-critique regarding their sins, their feelings of remorse and sorrow deepen—thereby awakening the motivation for tawbah. Emphasizing that this first step activates divine will, al-Qushayrī further notes that the one who repents will be granted facilitating causes and spiritual opportunities by God (al-Qushayrī 1989, p. 179).

al-Ghazālī draws attention to the process through which the desire to repent emerges in an individual. According to him, divine will not only grants the human being the opportunity to repent, but also warns and guides the individual—through both internal impulses and external stimuli—to make use of this opportunity. In his view, it is not only the act of sinning that is dangerous, but also the failure to reflect upon and evaluate the consequences of one’s sins. Therefore, divine will may subject the individual to certain inner or outer afflictions in order to prompt them to re-examine their relationship with God and to encourage them toward tawbah (al-Ghazālī 1986, vol. 12, pp. 198–99).

Similar evaluations regarding the relationship between tawbah and awareness can also be found in the works of Abū Ṭālib al-Makkī (d. 386 AH/996 CE). al-Makkī approaches the issue within a temporal framework, dividing it into three stages. According to him, the period spent in sin constitutes the “first stage,” which is wasted both materially and spiritually. The subsequent period, which is neither purified through tawbah nor oriented toward divine mercy, is similarly defined as a “second stage” of wasted time. In contrast, an individual who sanctifies these two periods (past and present) through tawbah is expected to enter a “third stage”—the future—during which they endeavor to correct themselves; experience a form of internal stability and normalization in their behavior; and develop an awareness of seeking what is pure and lawful in their outward life (al-Makkī 2001, vol. 2, p. 506).

Some Sufis have approached the relationship between tawbah and awareness from a psychological perspective. According to them, the feelings of remorse and sorrow following a sin serve as the most effective motivational sources for tawbah. Such emotions can trigger the individual’s spiritual awakening and awareness, marking the beginning of a genuine process of transformation. Conversely, remorse can sometimes become imperceptible to the individual due to the pleasure derived from the sin itself. It has been observed that in such cases, no genuine regret is experienced; instead, feelings of joy and delight may increase. In this state, the individual becomes numb to the spiritual consequences of their actions, and a lifestyle shaped by the desires and whims of the ego becomes normalized. These individuals, spiritually likened to the dead, have made unconscious sinning a routine part of life (al-Ghazālī 1986, vol. 12, p. 174; al-Jawziyya 2019, vol. 1, p. 278).

According to Abū ʿAlī al-Jullābī al-Hujvīrī (d. 465 AH/1072 CE), tawbah becomes possible when a person awakens from the sleep of heedlessness and becomes aware of their own faults. This awareness begins with reflecting on the ugliness of the deeds committed and their spiritual consequences. When the servant sincerely questions their negative state and, as a result of this questioning, makes an effort to turn toward the divine presence, God grants them means and reasons to facilitate tawbah (al-Hujwīrī 2007, vol. 2, pp. 450–451). Considering Hucvirî’s explanations, it is understood that tawbah is a twofold spiritual process that operates both through the servant’s voluntary awareness and divine grace.

Sufis emphasize the spiritual awareness and gains that true tawbah brings to the individual, explaining these gains through internal and external factors that directly affect a person’s happiness. In the heart of the one who repents, a joy will first arise because of this act (al-Makkī 2001, vol. 2, p. 510). Tawbah also initiates an ontological transformation process in the individual in response to the material and spiritual blessings bestowed by Allah. This process elevates the person’s consciousness to a state of existential solidarity with nature and all living beings. According to al-Jawziyya, at the foundation of this cosmic bond that the servant establishes with nature lies the awareness of dependence on divine will and submission to it (al-Jawziyya 2019, vol. 2, p. 322).

The relationship between tawbah and existential awareness, as pointed out by al-Jawziyya, is also emphasized by the renowned Sufi Jalāl al-Dīn Rūmī (d. 672 AH/1273 CE). According to him, the human being, as an ontological part of both the earth and the heavens, is in constant interaction with them. An individual’s obedience or disobedience to the divine will finds a response in both the earth and the heavens. Accordingly, the human being ought to set himself in motion through repentance and recognize the divinely granted possibilities mediated through the heavens and the earth. Rūmī explains the state of tawbah—which he describes as liberation from disobedience—through the metaphor of soil:

Take one more step forward and adopt the quality of being soil, that is, humility, as your attribute and nature. Then I shall make you superior to all beings

(Rūmī 2004, vol. 3, p. 51).

In his poem, “becoming soil” refers to the human being returning to their essence during their lifetime—that is, being characterized by humility. It is only upon reaching this level that a person becomes aware of their ontic relationship with the earth and the heavens and is elevated to the rank of vicegerency by the divine will (Rūmī 2004, vol. 3, p. 51).

Some of Nasr’s explanations on the subject appear to directly clarify Rūmī’s aforementioned ideas. Nasr, addressing the concept of the vicegerent/perfect human in the context of obedience to the divine will, seeks to explain the relationship between the human being and nature. According to him, the human is the axis, the center, the master, and at the same time the guardian of nature. However, this authority is granted to the human solely by virtue of being God’s vicegerent on earth (Nasr 1988, p. 96).

Although Nasr does not explicitly mention the concept of tawbah here, he describes the level of vicegerency as "the human being ceasing to be a superficial creature." According to Nasr, when the inner order or spiritual life of a person falls into chaos and becomes corrupted, their relationship with nature will also deteriorate. Through full obedience to God’s commands and prohibitions, and by means of spiritual contemplation, the human must abandon their superficial existence (Nasr 1988, pp. 96–97).

This act of “abandonment” emphasized by Nasr aligns closely with the essential elements contained within the concept of tawbah. Regret, introspection/contemplation, and returning to the path of God (a reversal from a previous state) are the elements that al-Ghazālī highlights as constituting the essence of true tawbah. In light of this information, it can be said that Nasr is of the opinion that self-knowledge and the knowledge of nature are, in essence, the same, and that this act of knowing is made possible through obedience to the divine will, contemplation, and renunciation—i.e., tawbah.

In accordance with the information presented above, it becomes clear that the Sufis view the act of tawbah as both the beginning of awareness and a dynamic spiritual phenomenon that sustains its continuity. This phenomenon has the power to activate the individual both in theory and in practice, shaping their vital choices and character. In the process of awareness, the first and foremost initiative must come from the servant. However, these interpretations also indicate that, prior to the act itself, the divine will supports the individual by sending certain warnings, causes, or opportunities as encouragement toward tawbah. Recognizing these divine signals before any punishment is given, and completing the process through tawbah, is considered the personal responsibility of the individual.

3. The Lack of Tawbah from a Sufi Perspective and Its Ecological Consequences

From a Qur’anic perspective, it is observed that some communities in the past were invited to tawbah (repentance), warned about it, and given opportunities. The ecological calamities that befell those communities who were called to tawbah by the divine will but ignored these warnings and did not change their condition are also among the issues mentioned in the Qur’an. These ecological calamities include natural disasters such as floods, earthquakes, lightning strikes, as well as material and psychological punishments like disease, famine, and fear (Q 29:40). In the verses explaining the destruction of communities whose tawbah was deemed impossible, there is always a warning period prior to their annihilation. Examples include the warnings given to the peoples of Noah (Q 7:59), Lot (Q 54:33), ‘Ad (Q 26:128–135), who did not take the warnings seriously and persisted in sin.

When considering the relevant verses in the Qur’an regarding the relationship between tawbah and calamity, two main points stand out. First, communities invited to tawbah are warned through divine punishment. Second, these warnings are not limited to verbal messages alone but are sometimes reinforced in advance by various calamities and hardships to keep the awareness of tawbah alive at both the individual and societal levels.

We never sent a prophet to any city but that we afflicted its people with suffering and adversity, so that they might humble themselves.

(Q 7:94)

And indeed, we punished those who followed Pharaoh with years of famine and scarcity.

(Q 7:130)

From these verses, it is evident that Allah reminds certain communities to repent by means of ecological calamities before the punishment is inflicted.

Sahl al-Tustarῑ (d. 283 AH/896 CE) made some remarks regarding the process by which sinful individuals and communities face psychological and ecological calamities. According to him, the first stage of being unable to repent stems from a lack of knowledge or ignorance. As a result of this deficiency, Allah tests the sinful individual with certain difficulties in daily life, which also serves as a moral trial. When the inability to repent and ignorance combine with worldly troubles, the heart of the individual who persists in sin hardens and dies. This is a psychological calamity. As a consequence of this situation, the priorities in the sinner’s life undergo a transformation; their connection to the sacred weakens or is completely severed from their worldly life. Ultimately, these individuals are exposed to the spiritual and ecological calamities expressed in the Qur’anic discourse (al-Tustarī 2002, p. 68).

al-Qushayrî, who interprets the Qur’anic verses concerning ecological punishment, similarly relates the issue to the absence of tawbah, much like al-Tustarî. According to him, the divine will first tests the sinful individual with mild trials in an effort to awaken them from heedlessness. Gradually, psychological and ecological calamities increase. A person who does not overcome their heedlessness through tawbah is often overcome by the desires of the self. The first calamity such individuals encounter in this world is tafriqah (separation from Allah). This state drives the individual to constantly compare themselves to others who possess luxury and comfort. Due to the psychological afflictions they fall into—such as anxiety and obsessive thoughts—these individuals cannot find peace, cannot be satisfied with their own gains, and cannot free themselves from the captivity of the world (al-Qushayrī 2007, p. 1/338-341).

One of the issues mentioned in the Qur’an regarding this matter is that communities persisting in sin are temporarily granted improved ecological conditions and standards. The verse, Then We replaced the evil with good … (Q 7:95), is explained by Ismāʿīl Ḥaqqi al-Bursawī (d. 1137 AH/1725 CE), an 18th-century Ottoman Sufi exegete, who interpreted the term “evil” (as-sayyiʾa) here as hardship and scarcity, and “good” (al-ḥasana) as abundance and ease. According to Bursawῑ, evil refers to the adversities that befall the servant and cause distress both outwardly and inwardly, while good is defined as the blessings, abundance, and state of peace granted to a person in worldly life. Within this framework, some communities deprived of tawbah may observe that external (ecological, economic, or social) conditions have turned favorable for them. Due to the moral and spiritual corruption they have fallen into, they fail to perceive the precursors of the calamities that will befall them. Regarding the verse … We seized them suddenly because of what they had done. (Q 7:96), Bursawῑ emphasizes that these communities—similar to previous peoples—are punished unexpectedly by ecological disasters such as earthquakes, floods, and storms. He underscores that this form of punishment is more severe and terrifying compared to others (Bursawῑ 2021, vol. 6, p. 224).

Several Sufi thinkers offer psychological analyses of the states of heedlessness and the refusal to repent observed in earlier communities who were subjected to temporary ecological disruptions as preliminary warnings before the actual punishment. According to these interpretations, the first matter that communities, which experience alternating hardship/calamity and abundance/prosperity, should contemplate is that this situation arises as a result of their own spiritual states. The external disorder that individuals and societies are subjected to should prompt them to reflect on their inner/spiritual order. However, the verse … They said, ‘Our ancestors also experienced hardship and then enjoyed prosperity’ (Q 7:95) indicates that some communities develop narratives that ignore their current condition. These unrealistic and consoling statements reflect a mentality that is materially advanced but spiritually and sacredly blind (Ibn ʿAjība 2012, vol. 3, p. 411).

In conclusion, when evaluated from a Qur’anic perspective, it is understood that the relationship between tawbah and ecological calamities functions as a divine warning mechanism on both individual and societal levels. Historical examples mentioned in the Qur’an demonstrate that communities who reject the call to tawbah face various natural disasters and psychological hardships. Sufi exegetes, when interpreting these verses, have drawn attention not only to physical calamities but also to moral corruption, heedlessness, and spiritual blindness occurring within the inner world of individuals. Exegetes such as al-Tustari, al-Qushayri, and Bursawῑ have emphasized that calamities are not merely worldly punishments but also serve as moral and spiritual admonitions. It has been noted particularly that processes such as the hardening of the heart, the domination of the self, social corruption, and disconnection from the sacred run parallel to ecological calamities when sin persists and tawbah is neglected.

4. Ecological Balance as the Tangible Manifestation of Tawbah (Repentance) in the Qur’anic Discourse

The Qur’an addresses human existence on earth and the ability to sustain that existence in a healthy manner not only at the individual and social levels but also within a cosmic and ecological framework. In this context, the Qur’an provides explanations concerning both the divine and human dimensions of events that may be understood within an ecological scope—such as earthquakes, floods, droughts, desertification, and climate change.

The human being is described as “God’s vicegerent on earth” (Q. 2:30), and through this status is entrusted with the mission of responsibility, maintaining balance, and protecting the environment. In this respect, the human being is regarded as the axis and center of the cosmic order (Nasr 1988, p. 96). Drawing attention to the close relationship between human material-spiritual balance and the balance of nature, Muhammad Iqbal explains that this relational order is one of the central messages of the Qur’an (The Qur’an Saheeh English Translation 2010) as follows:

No doubt, the immediate purpose of the Qur’an in this reflective observation of nature is to awaken in man a consciousness of that of which nature is regarded as a symbol, and then to awaken in man a higher consciousness of his manifold relations with God and the universe

(Iqbal 1934, p. 13).

According to Özdemir, who takes Iqbal’s views into consideration, the level of “multi-dimensional heightened consciousness toward nature” manifests itself in two dimensions. The first dimension is the individual’s realization of the divine power that lies behind nature. This awareness enables the human being not only to observe nature but also to interpret it within the context of its created order and divine operation, thereby integrating the individual into nature as one of its parts. The second dimension is the human capacity to evaluate his own spiritual state and moral responsibilities by reflecting upon nature—particularly ecological conditions and their impact on him (Özdemir 2003, pp. 8–9). In our view, these two dimensions constitute the basic framework of the comprehensive level of consciousness envisioned by the Qur’an, enabling the individual to relate both to the cosmic order and to his moral obligations.

A close examination of the Qur’an reveals the presence of verses that articulate, in concrete terms, the relationship between ecological conditions and tawbah:

And (saying),”seek forgiveness of your Lord and repent to Him, (and) He will let you enjoy a good provision for a specified term and give every doer favor his favor. But if you turn away, than indeed I fear for you the punishment of a great day.

(Q 11:3)3

And O my people, ask forgiveness of your Lord and then repent to Him. He will send (rain from) the sky upon you in showers and increase you in strength (added) to your strength. And don’t turn away, (being) criminals.

(Q 11:52)

And said; ask forgiveness of your Lord. Indeed, He is a Perpetual forgiver.

(Q 71:10)

He will send (rain from) the sky upon you in (continuing) showers.

(Q 71:11)

And give you increase in wealth and children and provide for you gardens and provide for you rivers.

(Q 71:12)

As clearly emphasized in these verses, it is stated that when individuals and societies repent and reform their spiritual states, they are granted tangible and positive ecological responses by the Divine Will. These may be enumerated as follows:

The opportunity to benefit from the blessings of the world in a good and wholesome manner.

• Abundant rainfall (absence of drought).
• Strengthening in both material and spiritual terms.
• Increase and multiplication of wealth.
• Increase and multiplication of offspring and progeny.
• Granting of fertile lands and provision of rivers (or irrigation resources) for those lands.

This preliminary discussion aims to highlight the explanations of both classical and contemporary exegetes concerning the general import of these verses, thereby providing a conceptual framework for a more nuanced understanding of the subsequent section on Sufi interpretations.

According to al-Zamakhsharī, the primary purpose of the ecological opportunities and resources granted to individuals and societies following tawbah is to strengthen their faith in God. This is because human beings, by their very nature, take delight in wealth, offspring, rain, and worldly prosperity in every era. al-Zamakhsharī maintains that societies benefiting from such blessings become more peaceful and self-confident. Within such an atmosphere of peace and security, the worldly bounties bestowed upon them enable the development of long-term and sustainable relations in areas such as trade, family life, and marriage, all grounded in the stability and harmony thus established (al-Zamakhsharī 1987, vol. 2, p. 402).

Rāzī views the benefits and contributions of ecological balance to human life as a divine gift and a form of “cosmic harmony” bestowed by God. Access to this grace becomes possible when the individual turns to God through tawbah. Tawbah constitutes the first stage of this transformation, while the second stage entails abandoning actions and behaviors that contradict the divine will. At this point, the individual reorganizes his priorities around God, whose existence is eternal and immutable, and begins to live with an awareness shaped by divine intention. This God-centered consciousness functions as a form of environmental stewardship, activating the divine will and leading to the renewal and flourishing of the ecological order that sustains human life.4 According to Rāzī, the tangible ecological blessings mentioned in the Qur’ānic verses are universal goods, loved and desired by all beings. Ultimately, this perspective grants the individual the opportunity to engage with the world’s resources not merely as objects of consumption but as sacred trusts, to be approached with esthetic sensitivity and moral responsibility (Rāzī 1981, vol. 17, pp. 181–82).

Elmalılı Hamdi Yazır (d. 1942 AE), one of the late Ottoman scholars, argues—based on the relevant Qur’ānic verses—that the tangible ecological consequences of tawbah can be justified through both rational and spiritual (qalbī) proofs. According to him, the rational proof rests upon the observable cause-and-effect relationships within nature: when humans refrain from sin and wrongdoing, the preservation of social order, the increase in blessings (baraka), and the continuity of ecological balance become rational necessities. The spiritual proof, on the other hand, consists of the inner peace, turning to God, and spiritual purification produced within the individual by tawbah, which in turn cultivates a heightened sense of responsibility toward nature and society. Yazır expresses this awareness as follows:

The person who attains peace through tawbah embarks upon life anew. Just as tawbah has personal implications, its societal consequences are even more comprehensive and decisive. This is because any benefit gained by an individual through defiance of the divine command corresponds to harm at the collective level. The harm endured by society, in turn, indirectly encompasses harm to the very transgressor who caused it. A person who fails to distance himself from such harm through tawbah and seeking forgiveness (istighfār) will inevitably experience its effects in the future, even if he does not sense them in the present. Conversely, every individual who repents is restored as an element of moral and social reform, both for himself and for society. In this way, a crucial step is taken toward enabling both individual and communal life to be enjoyed in a wholesome manner. Indeed, the Qur’ānic expression “yumatti‘kum matāʿan ḥasanan” (He will grant you a goodly enjoyment) (Q 11:3), with its explicit mention of “ḥasen” (good, wholesome), points to precisely such subtleties

(Yazır 2022, vol. 3, p. 559).

The exegetical insights of al-Zamakhsharī, Rāzī, and Elmalılı Hamdi Yazır on the relevant Qur’ānic verses reveal that tawbah functions not merely as an individual act of moral reorientation but as a multidimensional ethical principle deeply interwoven with social order and ecological integrity. What unites their interpretations is a shared insistence that tawbah transforms not only the inner life of the individual but also serves as a catalyst for social harmony, the restoration of ecological equilibrium, and the renewed manifestation of divine mercy. In this light, tawbah is reframed as a form of environmental and communal stewardship—a comprehensive religious-ethical imperative that sustains cosmic harmony, enhances the productivity of natural resources, and safeguards the long-term stability of collective human flourishing.

5. Ecotheological Dimensions of Tawbah (Repentance) in the Sufi Tafsīr Tradition

Sufi scholars accepted the outward (ẓāhirῑ) meanings of the Qur’ānic verses and regarded the rulings contained therein as binding upon themselves. At the same time, they maintained that beyond these outward meanings lay certain inner (bāṭinī) significations that are not accessible to everyone (Godlas 2006, pp. 350–51). For this reason, Sufi exegetes, when interpreting verses that address the ecotheological implications of tawbah, first considered their outward dimensions and then, in accordance with their own mystical frameworks, ascribed to them deeper esoteric meanings. Following this brief clarification, it will be appropriate to examine the views of Sufi exegetes on this subject in greater detail.

5.1. Tustarī: Tawāḍuʿ (Humility)

Tustarī, who served as a foundational source for subsequent Sufi exegetes, emphasized that a sound consciousness of ʿubūdiyya (servitude) is made possible through the continuity of tawbah. Owing to the heightened and refined awareness brought about by tawbah, the individual adopts a lifestyle characterized by humility and freedom from ostentation within his environment and time. One of the lofty, divinely oriented insights attained by a person who possesses this consciousness of humility is the realization that “the world and its resources are placed at the service of those who maintain a healthy relationship with God.” According to Tustarī, the Qur’ānic statement that promises “a goodly enjoyment of the worldly blessings” (Q 11:3) can only be actualized in this way (al-Tustarī 2002, p. 78).

ʿAbd Allāh al-Harawī (d. 481 AH/1089 CE) defined the concept of humility (tawāḍuʿ) as the servant’s acceptance of God’s authority through obedience (al-Harawī 1989, vol. 1, p. 22). al-Jawziyya on the other hand, emphasized that the essence of humility lies in being modest for the sake of upholding what is right and in seeking refuge in God in order to preserve the truth (al-Jawziyya 2019, vol. 2, p. 768). In another interpretation, it is stated that the awareness of humility motivates a person to assume the responsibilities required by his current state (al-Makkī 2001, vol. 2, p. 1144).

The definitions of humility (tawāḍuʿ) also shed light on humanity’s position in relation to nature. Submission to divine authority reminds human beings that they are not absolute rulers over the environment but rather trustees of it. From an ecotheological perspective, defending what is right is not merely an act of environmental preservation but also a requirement of adhering to the divine order. In this respect, humility enables a person to abandon an anthropocentric, domineering approach and to adopt an attitude that respects natural balance and the right of all living beings to exist. In this way, humility emerges as a form of awareness that allows human beings to perceive the shared ontological reality they hold with other creatures. This awareness, as a natural consequence of existential interconnectedness, necessitates directing love and respect not only toward humanity but toward all beings. Thus, humility manifests as an attitude that situates the human being within the wholeness of the cosmic order and makes visible the moral responsibility required by this order.

5.2. al-Sulamī: Empathy and Khidma (Sacred Service)

According to al-Sulamī’s interpretation of the aforementioned verses, individuals who transform tawbah into a firmly established disposition are not subjected to straitened means of livelihood within their environment, as this is considered a divine favor. Regardless of the variability of ecological conditions, such individuals, by virtue of their inner tranquility, consistently experience a sense of strength and stability. al-Sulamī, drawing on the views of Sufis such as Abū Ḥusayn al-Warrāq (d. 320 AH/932 CE) and Junayd al-Baghdādī (d. 297 AH/909 CE), emphasizes that tawbah cultivates certain virtues and moral excellences as divine gifts within both individuals and societies. In his view, the “opportunity to benefit from the blessings of this world in a wholesome manner” granted to those who turn to the Divine through tawbah is, in essence, their capacity to establish bonds with the poor5 and to form sincere companionship with them (al-Sulamī 2001, vol. 1, p. 312).

This privilege mentioned by al-Sūlamī is, in our view, closely related to an individual’s capacity for empathy. Studies have argued that empathy is a multidimensional concept that encompasses not only feelings and thoughts but also action and perception. According to Rogers, empathy is the process by which a person, without prejudice, places themselves in another’s position, views the environment through that person’s eyes, accurately understands and feels their emotions and thoughts, and communicates this understanding back to them (Rogers 1975, pp. 142–43). This approach entails not merely developing a sense of fellow-feeling but also taking on the responsibility of internalizing the other’s lived experience and understanding them at an ontological level (Turkmen 2025 p. 91). The fulfillment of a person’s duties toward God is closely connected to their sensitivity toward their responsibilities to other human beings and the various creatures in their environment (Kilic 2015, p. 12). When we consider that religion plays a functional role in setting common goals for addressing the universal problems humanity faces and in fostering a religious outlook in which the spirit of striving together for the common good prevails (Ozcan 2016, p. 2473), empathy emerges as an essential component of this process.

al-Sulamī’s interpretation of the divine promise mentioned in verses 11 and 12 of Sūrat Nūḥ—namely, the increase in wealth and offspring, the strengthening of material and spiritual power, and the improvement of living conditions following tawbah—is particularly noteworthy. According to him, the matters cited in the Qur’ān possess two dimensions: one outward (ẓāhir) and one inward (bāṭin). From the outward perspective, the gains alluded to in these verses are connected to the development, after tawbah, of an active, productive, and beneficial khidma (sacred service). From the inward perspective, the blessings promised after tawbah reflect the deepening quality of faith and serve as a tangible manifestation of divine mercy, taking on a role that encourages the individual toward greater faith (al-Sulamī 2001, vol. 2, p. 352).

When the Sufi recognizes all beings—animate and inanimate—as worthy of sacred service and positions himself as their servant, he thereby embodies a comprehensive and all-encompassing ethic of sacred service directed toward all creation. In this way, he serves all without discrimination, regards those he serves as superior to himself, and considers sacred service to be his duty. Through this practice, the Sufi attains the awareness that such service does not make him superior to others. Otherwise, this would amount to a great spiritual downfall, a manifest deficiency and delusion, and ultimately a problem with no solution in this life (al-Hujwīrī 2007, vol. 1, p. 251).

In light of the above, it becomes clear that al-Sulamī interprets the Qur’ānic verses linking tawbah with tangible ecological outcomes through the lens of empathy and sacred service. For Sulamī, empathy and sacred service not only enable the individual to understand the condition of others but also create a foundation of sensitivity and compassion in humanity’s relationship with nature. In this way, tawbah transcends mere personal purification, encouraging social solidarity and serving as a bridge to a form of religiosity that prioritizes collective engagement with the universal challenges facing humankind.

5.3. al-Qushayrī: Qanāʿa (Contentment) and Riḍ ā (Serene Acceptance)

According to al-Qushayrī, the Qur’ānic promises highlighted in verses 3 and 52 of Sūrat Hūd—balanced enjoyment of worldly blessings, the sending down of abundant rain, and the opportunity for material and spiritual empowerment—are directly connected to qanāʿa6 (contentment) and riḍā7 (serene acceptance). The realization of qanāʿa and riḍā becomes possible only through the tazkiyat al-nafs (the disciplining and purification of the soul) whereby the repentant individual’s ḥirṣ (greed, covetousness) is restrained. Accordingly, al-Qushayrī interprets the relevant verses of Sūrat Hūd as signifying the “eradication of greed.” For qanāʿa and riḍā stand in inverse proportion to the intensity of one’s ḥirṣ: to the extent that a person curbs their covetous impulses, they become capable of rightly appreciating and benefiting from the divine apportionment bestowed upon them. Such an orientation, in its essence, is rooted in the awareness that God, in His wisdom, allots to His servant precisely that which suffices for their true needs (al-Qushayrī 2007, vol. 2, p. 34).

al-Qushayrī further grounds his interpretation of these verses in the awareness that they open the door to serving not only fellow human beings but all of creation. In his view, the repentant individual strives to observe the rights (ḥuqūq) of both humans and living beings, seeking to perform acts of beneficence (iḥsān) toward them. One whose aim is to embody goodness does not, in the face of adversity encountered along this path, adopt harsh or aggressive attitudes toward others. Rather, they maintain their dignity and moral composure even in dealing with those of low character. This is because, through tawbah, the servant attains a state of riḍā (serene acceptance) which furnishes them with an elevated spiritual motivation and steadfastness (al-Qushayrī 2007, vol. 2, pp. 35–36).

The tangible ecological blessings and opportunities granted to the servant after tawbah are, according to al-Qushayrī, to be understood as a divinely ordained mechanism that eradicates consumption-driven and ego-centered ḥirṣ by cultivating the consciousness of qanāʿa and riḍā. The disciplining of greed not only curbs excessive exploitation of resources but also opens the way toward a mode of use that safeguards the rights of both human beings and other living creatures. al-Qushayrī’s reflections in this regard can also be read as a critique of unrestrained consumption, for he implicitly censures the behavior of those who, disregarding principles of dignity and virtue, seek social prestige through ostentatious consumption and public display of what they possess—an attitude that, as Veblen (1899, p. 75) notes, contributes to social and moral corruption. From this perspective, al-Qushayrī may be seen as articulating an eco-theological vision in which the human being is called to restrain their acquisitive impulses, to develop responsibility and forbearance toward the created order, and to preserve their moral and spiritual integrity within society.

5.4. Bursawῑ and Ālūsī: Ḥuḍūr (Spiritual Serenity) and the Iṭmi’nān al-Qalb (Certitude of the Heart)

Some Sufis have associated the apparent meanings of the relevant verses in Sūrat Hūd and Sūrat Nūḥ with the notions of ḥuḍūr (spiritual serenity) and iṭmi’nān al-qalb (certitude of heart). In this context, Shihāb al-Dīn Maḥmūd al-Ālūsī (d. 1270 AH/1854 CE) interprets all the concrete ecological blessings mentioned in the Qurʾān—such as wealth, offspring, fertile land, and other natural provisions—as falling under the Qurʾānic expression of “benefiting from the bounties of this world in a goodly manner.” According to al-Ālūsī, the phrase “matāʿan ḥasanan” (a goodly enjoyment) is not limited to the mere increase in material resources; rather, it also encompasses the inner serenity and spiritual confidence attained by the servant as a result of partaking in these blessings.

For al-Ālūsī, the source of this serenity and confidence that emerges after tawbah is not reducible to the comfort or improved ecological conditions one might enjoy. The true essence of happiness lies, in his view, in perceiving the divine will that stands behind these blessings. Thus, an individual’s sense of serenity and confidence gains its strength not so much from the augmentation of worldly means, but from the realization that these means are manifestations of divine grace. In this way, al-Ālūsī draws a clear distinction between the fleeting delight provided by worldly bounties and the enduring spiritual joy and confidence derived from recognizing the divine source of those bounties—thereby offering an ecotheological interpretation from a Sufi perspective (ʿAlūsī 2010, vol. 11, p. 33).

A similar interpretation is found in the ecotheological reflections of Bursawῑ. According to Bursawῑ, the servant who redirects the course of their life through tawbah is granted, by divine grace, favorable ecological conditions and worldly means, through which they are cleansed of negative psychological states such as sorrow, grief, and anxiety. For Bursawῑ, this process is not confined merely to the improvement of the servant’s external circumstances; rather, it signifies the attainment of an inner serenity (sukūn al-qalb) and spiritual composure, pointing to a transformation of the heart alongside the restoration of outward conditions (Bursawῑ 2021, vol. 8, p. 264).

According to Bursawῑ, the individual who, through tawbah, is purified from acquisitive impulses such as the excessive desire to accumulate wealth and unrestrained consumption, adopts a more patient and confident disposition when faced with the hardships caused by environmental contingencies. For one whose heart remains attached to worldly causes and transient affections is inevitably exposed, throughout life, to anxiety and grief over the possible loss of possessions. By contrast, the person who limits such worldly attachments, viewing what they possess as a manifestation of divine grace, attains greater steadfastness and composure in the face of loss (Bursawῑ 2021, vol. 8, p. 265).

Bursawῑ interprets the Qurʾānic mention of God’s favorable response to individuals and communities who seek His pardon and forgiveness—granted in the form of “abundant rain, plentiful wealth and offspring, gardens, and rivers”—as follows:

God promises those who repent and seek His forgiveness an immediate and tangible reward in this world. For the things promised in these verses have a greater effect on people’s hearts and are more pleasing to their nafs (lower self) than forgiveness alone. Indeed, because of his ḥirṣ, the human being loves that which is immediate. Thus, God has expressed His response to tawbah not merely as “forgiveness,” but as promises of rain, wealth, children, gardens, and the like. He has done so in order that people, being drawn to these promises, may witness their effect and blessing and, by making a comparison, come to understand the value and greatness of divine pardon

(Bursawῑ 2021, vol. 22, pp. 312–13).

According to Bursawῑ’s observation, the separate mention of rainfall from divine forgiveness indicates that forgiveness is not merely an abstract spiritual grace but also possesses a concrete manifestation within the natural order. This highlights the direct connection between the human relationship with God and the ecological system. For the rain that descends as a result of divine pardon not only revives the earth but also increases the provision (rizq) of living beings, preserves biodiversity, and ensures the continuity of life. Linking improved ecological conditions to the divine will fosters, both at the individual and collective level, a heightened sense of inner serenity and spiritual confidence, which in turn strengthens environmental consciousness. Forgiveness, therefore, is understood here as the divine ground of ecological abundance, implying that renewed obedience to God contributes to the re-establishment of the natural balance within creation.

5.5. al-Kāshānī: Tawḥīd (Divine Unity) and the ʿAdl (Justice)

ʿAbd al-Razzāq al-Kāshānī, in his commentary on these verses, does not limit tawbah merely to the forgiveness of sins. Rather, he understands it as a process in which the heart is illumined by divine lights and is granted an unveiling (kashf) of the ultimate truth (al-Kāshānī 1998, v. 1, pp. 99–100). This quest for truth, according to Ibn ʿArabī, reaches its culmination in the station of baqāʾ8 subsistence in God. He underscores that the one who attains this station acquires a true understanding of tawḥīd and consequently acts in harmony with the principle of divine justice (Ibn ʿArabī 2017, vol. 1, p. 330). The phrase “abundant rain” emphasized in the verse, according to al-Kāshānī a prominent disciple within the Ibn ʿArabī tradition, is an allusion to the mawhibāt ilāhiyya9 (divine bestowals) and spiritual states descending from the celestial realm of the spirit into the heart of the human being. Through the blessings of these bestowals, the servant attains both material and spiritual empowerment within their environment (al-Kāshānī 1998, v. 1, pp. 99–100). According to him, the increase in wealth promised by God after tawbah is a symbolic reference to the spiritual ranks and divine assistances the servant acquires in worldly life. The multiplication of offspring signifies the reception of sacred angelic assistance; gardens symbolize the manifestation of divine attributes (tajalliyāt al-ṣifāt); and rivers represent the ever-flowing streams of knowledge (Ibn ʿArabī 2017, vol. 2, p. 1351).

Tawḥīd, which constitutes the cornerstone of Islamic thought, is the principle that affirms the absolute oneness and incomparability of God. In this framework, God is acknowledged not only as the sole and ultimate Creator but also as the exclusive Owner of all dominion (al-mulk) and the true Governor of the entire cosmos (Ozler 2012, vol. 41, pp. 18–20). Everything that exists within the created order possesses intrinsic value, for it both originates from the divine creative act and serves as a sign (āyah) pointing toward its Creator. In this sense, there is no essential ontological distinction between the human being and the rest of creation. Just as injustice against human beings is regarded as a violation of their rights (ḥaqq al-ʿabd), so too any form of injustice or harm inflicted upon non-human creatures cannot escape being counted as a transgression of the rights entrusted to humanity (Shahinalp 2021, vol. 33, p. 109).

From an Islamic perspective, nature is regarded as a perfect and harmonious divine gift, created to serve a specific purpose and placed at the disposal of humankind. It is characterized by order, intentionality, and beneficence, and is therefore considered valuable from both a metaphysical and an ecological standpoint. Consequently, the order and harmony observed within the physical world (nature) can be maintained only by ascribing them exclusively to the absolute will and omnipotence of God, without attributing any independent causal power to anything other than Him. This reality is viewed as a direct manifestation of the metaphysical principle of tawḥīd—not only in the act of creation itself but also in the ongoing governance and operation of the cosmos (Farūqī 2006, pp. 61–70).

According to al-Kāshānī, the second force and virtue that emerges in the spiritual journey is the consciousness of ʿadl (justice). The concept of justice, together with the principle of tawḥīd, constitutes one of the foundational notions that regulate the self’s relationship with other beings (Ardogan 2012, vol. 1, p. 131). Even certain Islamic schools of thought, such as the Muʿtazila—who describe themselves as the adherents of divine unity (tawḥīd) and justice (ʿadl)—have defended justice as a necessary implication of the principle of tawḥīd. (Qāḍī ʿAbd al-Jabbār 1998, p. 69). The Ikhwān al-Ṣafāʾ, for their part, grounded the human being’s vicegerency on earth in the ethical responsibilities of justice and compassion (Ikhwān al-Ṣafāʾ Epistles 2013, vol. 2, p. 174). In this regard, justice has been understood as an ethical obligation arising from the awareness of tawḥīd, one that binds the human being not only toward fellow humans but also toward all other living creatures (Ardogan 2012, vol. 1, p. 132). To refrain from corrupting or disrupting the divinely instituted order and balance established for the benefit of humankind—and rather to reform, cultivate, and sustain it—is a fundamental requirement of the consciousness of justice. Thus, justice emerges not merely as a principle regulating interpersonal relations but also as a normative guide governing the human relationship with the natural environment and with all ecological realities (Shahinalp 2021, vol. 33, p. 123).

In light of the foregoing, it becomes clear that al-Kāshānī does not regard nature merely as a material resource placed at humanity’s disposal or as a source of purely worldly benefit. Rather, he perceives the natural environment as one of the manifestations of divine light (nūr ilāhī) on earth. Rain, gardens, rivers, and other ecological provisions are interpreted as symbolic reflections of divine mercy (raḥma). According to al-Kāshānī, the sanctification of life through tawbah first awakens within the human being an awareness of tawḥīd. His interpretation may thus be understood as emphasizing the cultivation of an inner disposition that enables the human being to discern the absolute power and will underlying the ecological blessings bestowed upon creation. Moreover, this approach redefines the human being’s position within the order of existence by linking the metaphysical dimension of ʿadl (justice) with ecological responsibility. Accordingly, the human is charged not merely with safeguarding personal interests but with upholding the rights of all creatures. Justice thus comes to be understood as the foundational ground for both the preservation of the cosmic order and the restitution of the rights due to created beings.

6. Conclusions

In this study, which examines the eco-theological implications of the Qur’anic verses on tawbah (repentance) from a Sufi perspective, the following conclusions have been reached:

The Qur’an demonstrates that the concept of tawbah is not limited merely to the forgiveness of individual sins; rather, it constitutes a transformative process that impacts the ecological order and the relationship between humanity and nature. This transformative process functions as a divine mechanism that restores balance at both the societal and cosmic levels.

The Sufi tradition conceives of tawbah as the illumination of the heart, the dawn of spiritual awareness, and a transformative process that redefines the human being’s ontological station. In this light, tawbah transcends mere moral purification; it becomes a profound awakening that restores harmony between the human soul and the natural order, rekindling a consciousness of ecological responsibility as part of one’s spiritual duty.

Another significant finding of this study is that the absence of tawbah does not merely result in spiritual blindness and social decay, but also manifests in ecological calamities, functioning as a divinely ordained warning and admonition.

The Sufi exegetical tradition interprets the worldly blessings promised after tawbah—such as rain, wealth, offspring, and gardens—not only as material abundance but also as symbolic signs that enable the human being to perceive the manifestations of divine mercy. This interpretation provides a robust ecotheological framework, emphasizing that the ecological order is a reflection of divine will and that human intervention in this order entails a profound moral and spiritual responsibility.

The Sufi exegetical tradition constructs the theoretical foundation of ecotheological approaches to the human–nature relationship around the centrality of tawbah. In Sufi thought, tawbah is not merely a process of moral purification from sin but a transformative mechanism that restores the human being’s alignment with the divine order and revives cosmic harmony. Within this framework, ethical and spiritual virtues such as tawāḍuʿ (humility), empathy, khidma (sacred service), qanāʿa (contentment), riḍā (serene acceptance), ḥuḍūr (spiritual serenity), iṭmi’nān al-qalb (Certitude of the Heart), tawḥīd (divine unity) and the ʿadl (justice) become manifest and operative—both on the individual and societal levels—through the transformative power of tawbah.

Consequently, Sufi thought provides a rich source of reference for contemporary ecotheological approaches, offering both a theoretical framework and practical guidance. It renders visible the human being’s holistic responsibilities before God, society, and the natural world.