The Role of Ritual Prayer (Ṣalāh) in Self-Purification and Identity Formation: An Islamic Educational Perspective

Abstract

Ritual prayer (ṣalāh) is one of the most central and enduring practices in Islam, widely recognized for its spiritual significance. However, its educational and formative role in shaping the Muslim’s inner self and moral identity remains insufficiently explored in contemporary scholarship. This paper aims to examine ritual prayer as a core pedagogical tool within Islamic education, focusing on its transformative power in the processes of self-purification (tazkiyah) and identity formation. The study seeks to analyze the ethical and psychological dimensions of ṣalāh, drawing on classical Islamic sources, as well as integrating insights from contemporary critical philosophy—particularly Byung-Chul Han’s Vita Contemplativa—and Islamic virtue ethics, including perspectives such as those advanced by Elizabeth Bucar. Through this framework, the paper explores how prayer shapes inner dispositions like humility, mindfulness, sincerity, patience, and submission, reinforcing both spiritual awareness and communal belonging. Employing a descriptive-analytical methodology, the study engages Qur’anic verses, prophetic traditions, and traditional pedagogical literature to investigate how ṣalāh functions as a lived and repeated experience that cultivates the soul and molds ethical behavior. The discussion highlights how regular performance of prayer integrates belief with action and contributes to the formation of a reflective and morally grounded Muslim identity. This paper contributes to the field of Islamic Practical Theology by demonstrating how ritual prayer operates as a dynamic and holistic model for moral and spiritual development. It provides educators and scholars with a theoretical and applied vision for incorporating ṣalāh-based character education into Islamic curricula. Future research may explore how prayer interacts with modern lifestyles, digital spiritual practices, and intergenerational transmission of religious identity in diverse contexts.

1. Introduction

Ritual prayer (ṣalāh) stands as one of the most enduring and prominent expressions of Islamic religious life, performed daily by millions of Muslims across a wide spectrum of cultural and social contexts (Nasr 2002; al-Ghazālī n.d., vol. 1, p. 145). Beyond its status as a legal obligation (farḍ), ṣalāh functions as an embodied ritual that regulates the believer’s temporal rhythm, harmonizes intention with action, and nurtures a profound consciousness of the divine (Asad 1993). Despite its centrality in Islamic theology and ritual practice, however, the pedagogical and formative dimensions of ṣalāh remain insufficiently examined in contemporary Islamic scholarship—particularly within the emergent field of Islamic Practical Theology (Işık 2022).

Ṣalāh, or ritual prayer, is one of the Five Pillars of Islam and constitutes the most consistent and widely practiced form of Muslim devotion. It is performed five times a day at prescribed intervals, combining bodily movements and verbal recitations in a structured sequence. The physical elements include standing (qiyām), bowing (rukūʿ), prostration (sujūd), and sitting (julus), each accompanied by Qur’ānic recitations, praises of God, and supplications. Alongside these outward acts, ṣalāh requires inward dispositions such as khushūʿ (mindful humility), presence of heart, and attentiveness to God. The integration of these physical and spiritual dimensions renders prayer a comprehensive discipline of self-regulation, ethical awareness, and spiritual orientation (Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyyah 2019a, p. 109).

This research proceeds from the premise that ṣalāh functions as a transformative pedagogical act—one that shapes ethical dispositions, nurtures inner purification (tazkiyat al-nafs) (Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyyah 2019a, p. 109), and fosters a stable, God-oriented moral identity (Bucar 2017). Ṣalāh serves as a site of ritual embodiment, where belief is enacted and religious norms are rehearsed, internalized, and actualized through intentional and mindful performance (Asad 1993). This understanding aligns with the broader objectives of Islamic Practical Theology, which regards religion not solely as a set of doctrines or scriptural texts, but as an embodied field of ethical formation, spiritual action, and lived meaning (Işık 2022; Sahin 2013).

In today’s morally fragmented landscape—characterized by secularization, hyper-individualism, and digital distraction (Han 2015)—there is a growing imperative to re-evaluate Islamic ritual practices as educational resources for cultivating moral resilience and spiritual attentiveness (Sahin 2013). Within this context, ṣalāh emerges not merely as a mode of personal piety, but as a spiritually and ethically generative practice—a form of theological pedagogy that trains the body, heart, and intellect in virtues such as humility, patience, sincerity, and mindfulness (Bucar 2017; al-Ghazālī n.d., vol. 1, p. 145; Işık 2022). Moreover, it functions as a stabilizing axis of identity for Muslims living in pluralistic or secular environments, enabling them to reaffirm religious belonging, cultivate resilience, and enact moral agency through embodied ritual.

The present study builds on this view by arguing that ṣalāh must be understood as a multi-dimensional educational practice—one that integrates divine revelation, spiritual intentionality, moral discipline, and embodied pedagogy. Rather than treating prayer as a discrete obligation, the study situates it within a broader educational ecosystem that includes taʿlīm (instruction), tarbiyah (moral nurturing), and tazkiyat (spiritual refinement), highlighting its centrality in forming the ethical self and grounding religious identity in action. This vision challenges reductionist interpretations that isolate ṣalāh from its formative consequences and instead proposes a dynamic model of ritual as a performative and pedagogical act through which Muslims internalize and express theological and ethical commitments over time. This study is situated within the discourse of Islamic pedagogy, which we understand here as the theory and practice of teaching and learning grounded in Qur’ānic principles, prophetic traditions, and classical Islamic scholarship.

In this study, tarbiyah is positioned as the overarching concept of Islamic education, within which both taʿlīm (instruction) and tazkiyat al-nafs (spiritual refinement) operate as integral components. Recent scholarship has demonstrated that while English-language literature often treats these terms as parallel, classical Arabic sources affirm that tarbiyah encompasses the comprehensive development of the individual—physical, intellectual, spiritual, moral, and social—whereas taʿlīm and tazkiyat represent particular functions within this broader framework (Abdalla 2025). From this perspective, ṣalāh emerges as a pedagogical practice that actualizes the goals of tarbiyah by simultaneously instructing the intellect, disciplining the body, and purifying the soul, thereby harmonizing educational, moral, and spiritual dimensions in a unified formative process.

This paper investigates the following central question: How does ṣalāh function as a formative and pedagogical act that contributes to self-purification, moral development, and identity formation within the framework of Islamic Practical Theology?

To address this inquiry, the study adopts an integrative, descriptive-analytical methodology, drawing upon a diverse array of sources—ranging from Qur’anic verses and prophetic traditions to classical pedagogical literature and contemporary philosophical reflections. It places the insights of classical scholars such as al-Ghazālī (d. 505 AH/1111 CE) and Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyyah (d. 751 AH/1350 CE) in dialog with modern perspectives on virtue ethics, lived religion, and ritual pedagogy—particularly the works of Byung-Chul Han (2023) and Bucar (2017), who conceptualize ritual as a dynamic site of ethical subject-formation and contemplative resistance.

The core contribution of this study lies in reconceptualizing ṣalāh as a ritual technology of moral formation and identity grounding—a performative grammar of faith through which the believer trains the self, disciplines desire, and enacts theological knowledge through intentional repetition and spiritual presence. In doing so, it expands both the analytical scope and pedagogical relevance of Islamic Practical Theology, affirming that ṣalāh is not only theologically significant but also pedagogically indispensable in the cultivation of Muslim subjectivity.

The paper is structured as follows: Section 2 offers a critical review of classical and contemporary literature on ṣalāh as a moral, spiritual, and educational practice. Section 3 outlines the methodological framework and source materials. Section 4 presents a multidimensional discussion of ṣalāh through the lenses of pedagogical theology, virtue cultivation, and identity performance. Finally, Section 5 proposes a practical theological model for integrating ṣalāh into Islamic character education and concludes with implications for future research—particularly regarding the incorporation of ritual practices into both formal and informal Islamic educational settings (Işık 2018).

2. Literature Review

2.1. Ṣalāh as a Spiritual, Moral, and Pedagogical Practice

In Islamic theology and the philosophy of education, ritual prayer (ṣalāh) occupies a position that transcends its outward form as a devotional obligation. It serves as a holistic framework for spiritual cultivation, ethical development, and the construction of a reflective Muslim self. Ṣalāh is not merely a symbolic ritual but a deeply embodied practice that aligns the worshiper’s inner disposition with the divine order. Theologically, ṣalāh represents a daily renewal of the covenant between the individual and God, reinforcing the ontological foundation of human servitude (ʿubūdiyyah) and divine proximity (qurb ilā Allāh). Educationally, it becomes a recurring experiential lesson in self-regulation, humility, and moral consciousness (al-Ghazālī n.d., vol. 1, p. 145; Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyyah 2019a, p. 109).

Classical Islamic scholars—especially those writing in the fields of ethics and spirituality—emphasized the transformative role of ritual prayer. Abū Ḥāmid al-Ghazālī (d. 505 AH/1111 CE), in his magnum opus Iḥyāʾ ʿUlūm al-Dīn, assigned particular significance to the inward dimensions of ṣalāh. He argued that outward conformity to physical movements alone is insufficient for spiritual efficacy (al-Ghazālī n.d., vol. 1, p. 145). Instead, he emphasized the necessity of ḥuḍūr al-qalb (presence of heart), khushūʿ (mindful humility), and murāqabah (God-conscious self-awareness) as essential preconditions for a meaningful encounter with the divine. For al-Ghazālī, prayer functioned as a pedagogical instrument designed to instill these virtues gradually through structured repetition, focused attentiveness, and reflective engagement (al-Ghazālī n.d., vol. 1, pp. 144–46).

Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyyah (d. 751 AH/1350 CE), another seminal figure in Islamic spiritual psychology and virtue ethics, conceptualized ṣalāh as a central mechanism for achieving tazkiyat al-nafs (purification of the soul). In his writings—especially Discourse on the Issues of Listening (al-Kalām ʿalā Masʾalat al-Samāʿ) (Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyyah 2019a, p. 109) and Prayer and the Ruling on One Who Abandons It (Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyyah 2019b, p. 339)—he elucidated how the regular performance of ṣalāh refines the moral faculties of the individual. For Ibn Qayyim, ṣalāh served as a divine regimen designed to combat internal vices such as arrogance, impatience, and heedlessness, while simultaneously fostering al-saʿādah al-akhlāqiyyah (moral happiness)—a state of harmonious alignment between one’s will and the divine command. He emphasized that repeated engagement with prayer habituates the soul to a rhythm of sincerity, humility, and self-discipline, thus laying the groundwork for lasting moral transformation.

While many classical scholars emphasized the transformative and spiritual potential of ṣalāh, they also cautioned against its reduction to mere outward form. Jurists generally agreed that prayer remains legally valid even in the absence of inner humility (khushūʿ), since khushūʿ is not a formal condition for validity but rather a condition for perfection and reward. Al-Ghazālī, for instance, repeatedly warned that prayer without presence of heart is like a body without a soul—formally correct yet spiritually barren (al-Ghazālī n.d., vol. 1, p. 145). Similarly, Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyyah outlined the varying ranks of worshippers in prayer, noting that many fulfill its external requirements but fail to realize its deeper spiritual fruits (Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyyah 2019a, p. 109). These perspectives highlight that while ṣalāh may achieve juridical sufficiency at the level of ritual formalism, its true pedagogical and ethical efficacy depends on the degree of attentiveness and sincerity that accompany its performance.

Contemporary Islamic educational scholarship continues to affirm the integrative relationship between ritual worship and moral formation, particularly in the context of children’s and adolescents’ development. Drawing on Qur’anic analysis, Qawzāḥ (2020) demonstrates that ṣalāh, far from being a mere ritual obligation, encodes a rich spectrum of ethical values. Its structured components—bodily posture, verbal praise, and internal focus—function collectively as a moral curriculum aimed at nurturing virtues such as humility, self-discipline, respect, and a sense of divine accountability. The pedagogical impact of prayer, as Qawzāḥ argues, extends beyond individual piety to foster communal cohesion and responsible citizenship, making it a vital instrument of moral education within both formal schooling and family life.

Recent Islamic educational research has expanded the discourse by demonstrating how ritual practices such as ṣalāh function within Islamic school systems not merely as religious obligations, but as integral components of character education. Prayer, when integrated intentionally within pedagogical frameworks, cultivates core virtues such as patience, discipline, order, and emotional resilience. According to Oktaviani and Rhamadhan (2024), ṣalāh fosters moral awareness by serving as both a spiritual anchor and a daily practice that reinforces values like cleanliness, humility, patience, and responsibility. These embedded values play a crucial role in shaping the character of Muslim students, making prayer not only an act of worship but a transformative educational tool.

Recent research has also begun to explore the pedagogical value of ritual practices in fostering emotional and moral development among students. For example, Syahbudin et al. (2019) conducted a quantitative study examining the relationship between students’ participation in tadarus al-Qurʾān—the collective recitation of the Qur’an—and their emotional intelligence. The findings revealed a statistically significant correlation, suggesting that structured Qurʾānic recitation can enhance emotional awareness, self-regulation, and interpersonal sensitivity. While their study focused specifically on Qurʾān recitation rather than ṣalāh, it illustrates how ritualized devotional activities can nurture holistic character development. In this light, ṣalāh may be understood as a complementary ritual practice that, through embodied repetition and mindful orientation, reinforces similar virtues of discipline, humility, and attentiveness within educational settings.

Beyond its role in shaping individual character, ṣalāh also plays a significant role in strengthening family and community relationships. Chelladurai et al. (2018), in their qualitative study on regular family prayer, found that shared ritual practices foster emotional intimacy, reduce relational tensions, and enhance a sense of spiritual unity within households. Family prayer serves not only as an act of devotion, but also as a relational process that reinforces intergenerational transmission of values, provides social support, and builds collective resilience. These insights affirm the educational and ethical significance of ṣalāh as a foundation for nurturing morally grounded and emotionally connected Muslim families.

Likewise, Rayhan (2015) emphasizes that the regular performance of ṣalāh serves as a comprehensive spiritual and psychological practice that fosters moral consciousness and taqwā (God-consciousness). Drawing on both Islamic teachings and scientific perspectives, his work highlights how the structured integration of prayer and reflective invocations enhances emotional balance, nurtures gratitude, and strengthens the individual’s sense of ethical responsibility. When practiced consistently, this ritual framework helps embed spiritual awareness and self-regulation within the developing moral identity of the believer. Thus, ṣalāh—when coupled with intentional mindfulness—functions not only as worship but also as a powerful vehicle for shaping character and cultivating a resilient, God-centered self (Rayhan 2015).

Ṣalāh functions not merely as a liturgical exercise, but as a comprehensive educational and ethical practice that interweaves worship with pedagogy. In this study, the terms pedagogy, moral pedagogy, and spiritual pedagogy are employed with distinct yet complementary meanings. Pedagogy refers broadly to the principles and practices of teaching and learning, encompassing methods of instruction and the transmission of knowledge. Moral pedagogy emphasizes the cultivation of virtues and ethical dispositions such as honesty, humility, and responsibility, positioning education as a process of character formation. Spiritual pedagogy extends this framework by integrating the inner dimensions of faith, mindfulness, and God-consciousness into the educational process, thereby linking external learning with internal transformation. These three dimensions are not mutually exclusive but intersect in a holistic vision of education where knowledge, ethics, and spirituality are harmonized. Within this framework, ṣalāh exemplifies a uniquely integrative pedagogy: it is at once instructional, moral, and spiritual, training the intellect, disciplining the self, and orienting the heart toward God. Rooted in repetition, intentionality, embodiment, and community engagement, this pedagogy reflects essential principles in the Islamic vision of holistic character formation (Sahin 2013).

Furthermore, it is important to note that the roots of Islamic moral philosophy extend well before al-Ghazālī. A prominent early representative of this tradition is Aḥmad ibn Muḥammad ibn Yaʿqūb Miskawayh (d. 421/1030), whose seminal work Tahdhīb al-Akhlāq wa-Taṭhīr al-Aʿrāq presents one of the earliest systematic expositions of ethical self-cultivation (tahdhīb al-nafs) in the Islamic intellectual heritage. In this work, Miskawayh elaborates a rational and pedagogical approach to moral formation, emphasizing that virtue arises through habituation, moderation, and the harmonization of the soul’s faculties. He contends that moral excellence is achieved when reason governs desire and anger in balanced proportion, producing a disciplined and ethically refined self—a vision later integrated into the works of al-Ghazālī and Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyyah. This philosophical framework situates ṣalāh, as examined in this study, within a continuous moral-pedagogical tradition that unites ethical refinement and spiritual cultivation (Miskawayh n.d., vol. 1, p. 112).

This integrated understanding of ṣalāh as a vehicle for moral cultivation finds further articulation in recent scholarship on Islamic virtue ethics. Notably, Işık (2022) presents a compelling framework of Selbstkultivierung (self-cultivation) within the Islamic tradition, emphasizing how ritual acts, ethical striving, and theological reflection—by which we mean the disciplined engagement of revealed sources and doctrines with lived practice to generate pedagogical and spiritual insight—converge in forming the virtuous self. Drawing from classical sources in theology, mysticism, and pedagogy, Işık conceives of Islamic education as a process that harmonizes rational discernment with embodied practice and spiritual refinement. Within this framework, ṣalāh is not a peripheral ritual but a central pedagogical instrument that fosters ethical sensitivity through disciplined repetition and intentional presence. Her analysis underscores the formative power of Islamic rituals—especially prayer—in shaping a morally attuned and spiritually grounded subjectivity, affirming their indispensable place in Islamic moral education (Işık 2022).

2.2. Ṣalāh, Identity Formation, and Moral Subjectivity

Ṣalāh, while deeply rooted in theological and devotional meaning, also serves as a foundational practice for shaping religious identity and constructing moral subjectivity on both individual and communal levels. From an anthropological and sociological perspective, ṣalāh transcends mere worship. It is a performative, embodied ritual that actively shapes how individuals perceive themselves—as moral agents and as members of a broader religious tradition. Through its repetitive structure, bodily postures, and vocal expressions, ṣalāh functions as a visible marker of both internalized belief and outward conformity. It reinforces the individual’s sense of belonging to the ummah and alignment with its shared moral values.

Henkel’s (2005) influential ethnographic study in Damascus offers a more socially situated perspective. His assertion that “between belief and unbelief lies the performance of ṣalāh” underscores the powerful symbolic function of prayer as a public and private marker of religious commitment. In his work, Henkel examines how the daily enactment of prayer practices signals not just doctrinal adherence but also one’s position within a moral landscape shaped by piety, orthopraxy, and communal norms. Through this lens, ṣalāh emerges as a critical threshold that demarcates the boundaries of religious identity, especially in communities where practice often holds equal—if not greater—weight than abstract belief.

This conceptualization aligns with the findings of Hidayat (2017), who emphasizes that ṣalāh operates within a broader matrix of Islamic ritual acts that contribute to the formation of an “embodied Muslim identity.” Drawing on theories of ritual and embodiment, his study demonstrates how acts of worship such as prayer, fasting, and pilgrimage collectively construct and maintain identity through formalized, repeated, and embodied practices. These rituals transform the body into a site of moral agency and religious meaning, allowing individuals to internalize Islamic values and enact them as part of their lived experience.

Further critical reflections shed light on how ṣalāh, while traditionally a pillar of spiritual discipline and moral refinement, has increasingly become entangled in the broader dynamics of identity formation within Islamic revivalist contexts. As Khan (2019) argues, over a century of Islamic revivalism has contributed to reducing Islam from a comprehensive ethical and civilizational framework to a politicized identity. Within this shift, ritual practices such as ṣalāh may risk being instrumentalized as external markers of belonging rather than pursued as pathways to inner transformation. Although many observant Muslims continue to structure their lives around daily prayer—seeking through it spiritual growth, ethical clarity, and communal cohesion—the danger lies in decoupling the form of prayer from its pedagogical and introspective substance. In this light, ṣalāh must be reclaimed not only as an obligation but as a vital source of self-discipline, humility, and conscious ethical living, central to the formation of an authentic and spiritually rooted Islamic identity.

In contemporary educational theory, increasing attention is being given to the role of ṣalāh in shaping religious identity, particularly through its embodied and repetitive nature. Hidayat (2017), in his theoretical analysis of Islamic rituals, highlights how bodily practices such as ṣalāh, ṣawm, and ḥajj serve not merely as acts of devotion but as formative mechanisms that inscribe religious meaning onto the body. He argues that the structured performance of these rituals constructs and reinforces Muslim identity by cultivating a disciplined, spiritually attuned self. Within this framework, ṣalāh functions as a central ritual through which individuals internalize Islamic values and express their moral and theological commitments in a tangible, embodied form.

Building on this insight, scholars such as Brooks (2018) advocate for a more intentional integration of ritual practices like ṣalāh within Islamic educational curricula. In her ethnographic study of an American Islamic school, Brooks highlights that rituals such as prayer play a vital role in anchoring Muslim identity in a context of sociopolitical tension and cultural plurality. She argues that aligning curricular goals with the transformative dimensions of ṣalāh—such as reflection, discipline, and moral sensitivity—can help cultivate students who not only learn about Islam but embody it as a lived and resilient identity. This alignment is especially urgent in Western contexts, where Muslim youth face significant challenges in maintaining religious and moral integrity amid secular and pluralistic pressures.

Collectively, these diverse contributions—spanning linguistic analysis, ethnographic fieldwork, and pedagogical inquiry—demonstrate that ṣalāh is a multifaceted practice that contributes to the construction of Muslim identity in profound ways. It functions not only as a ritualized duty but also as a performative and meaning-making act through which individuals embody, negotiate, and transmit Islamic values. In doing so, ṣalāh becomes a central site for the development of moral subjectivity, reinforcing the epistemological and ontological underpinnings of Muslim selfhood in both traditional and contemporary contexts.

2.3. The Concept of Tazkiyat al-Nafs in Educational Discourse

The concept of tazkiyat al-nafs—commonly translated as “purification of the soul”—holds a foundational place in both classical Islamic thought and contemporary educational discourse. It refers to a comprehensive moral and spiritual process through which the human self is refined, disciplined, and elevated in accordance with divine guidance. Rooted in Qur’anic terminology and prophetic teachings, tazkiyat is not only a metaphysical objective but also a pedagogical methodology aimed at cultivating ethical integrity, emotional regulation, and spiritual maturity.

Several scholars have highlighted the centrality of this concept in relation to ritual practices, especially ṣalāh. Gavin Picken (2005), in his work on Islamic spirituality and ethics, identified the Qur’anic injunctions related to tazkiyat as being inherently connected to daily acts of worship, most notably prayer. He argued that the function of ṣalāh is not limited to obedience or submission but rather extends to the active purification of the inner self through repetition, reflection, and sincere intention.

This integration of ritual and ethical-spiritual aims is further exemplified in the moral tradition of the Salaf. According to al-Shammari (2021), ritual practices—particularly ṣalāh—constitute foundational means for achieving tazkiyat al-nafs (purification of the soul) in the methodology of the righteous predecessors. He emphasizes that ṣalāh is not merely a legal duty, but a structured spiritual regimen designed to train the self, humble the ego, and align the inner heart with divine intent. Within this framework, the repetitive and embodied nature of prayer is seen as essential for instilling taqwā, disciplining desire, and ascending toward spiritual excellence. This perspective places ṣalāh at the heart of ethical transformation and affirms its indispensability in the methodology of the righteous predecessors regarding moral cultivation.

Contemporary educational literature has increasingly emphasized the psychological and pedagogical significance of tazkiyat al-nafs in promoting holistic development. In a recent study, Hapsari and Rahman (2022) demonstrate how Islamic education grounded in tazkiyat al-nafs can be structured to cultivate emotional resilience, inner tranquility, and moral awareness, particularly among elderly learners. Their findings, based on qualitative research at an Islamic boarding school in Cibungbulang, highlight the transformative potential of spiritual practices such as congregational prayer, voluntary fasting, Qurʾanic recitation, and reflective worship routines. These practices serve not only as devotional acts but as educational strategies that integrate emotional, cognitive, and spiritual growth. The study underscores the relevance of tazkiyat al-nafs as a pedagogical model that transcends behaviorist paradigms and fosters a deeply rooted, value-oriented identity—suggesting broader applicability across diverse age groups and educational contexts.

Furthermore, comparative analyses such as the one presented by Noordin and Rahman (2017) provide a nuanced understanding of how different classical scholars conceptualized tazkiyat al-nafs. Their study contrasts al-Ghazālī’s introspective and contemplative model—which emphasizes inner struggle, awareness of divine presence, and constant self-scrutiny—with Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyyah’s more systematic and practical approach, which organizes the path of spiritual development into concrete stages supported by regular acts of worship. While al-Ghazālī frames tazkiyat as a mystical journey toward unveiling and enlightenment, Ibn Qayyim underscores its moral functionality and its role in cultivating righteous character (akhlāq) and social harmony. Despite these methodological differences, both scholars affirm the central role of ṣalāh as the primary ritual through which tazkiyat is actualized.

Taken together, these classical and contemporary perspectives underline the conceptual richness and pedagogical flexibility of tazkiyat al-nafs. When anchored in the daily performance of ṣalāh, it becomes a comprehensive educational framework that integrates spiritual awareness with ethical behavior. Prayer serves as both a spiritual anchor and a moral compass, helping individuals to monitor their inner states, correct their intentions, and develop virtues essential to personal and communal flourishing. In this way, tazkiyat al-nafs, as operationalized through ṣalāh, represents a vital bridge between Islamic spiritual anthropology and practical educational goals—one that is especially relevant in the context of Islamic Practical Theology.

2.4. Integrating Contemporary Philosophical and Ethical Perspectives

In recent years, a growing body of interdisciplinary scholarship has sought to reexamine Islamic ritual practices—particularly ṣalāh—through the lens of contemporary philosophy, critical theory, and virtue ethics. These perspectives have opened new avenues for interpreting ritual not solely as a set of prescribed actions, but as a site of ontological formation, moral cultivation, and resistance to modern forms of alienation. By situating ṣalāh within broader conversations on subjectivity, embodiment, and ethical agency, such approaches enrich our understanding of its pedagogical and spiritual dimensions in the modern world.

One of the most compelling contributions in this regard is found in the work of philosopher Byung-Chul Han, particularly in his 2023 treatise Vita Contemplativa: In Praise of Inactivity. While Han writes primarily from within a Western philosophical tradition, his critique of contemporary hyper-productivity, digital acceleration, and the commodification of time resonates with many challenges faced by Muslims today. Han argues that contemplative practices—those that demand slowness, silence, attentiveness, and withdrawal from external noise—serve as acts of resistance against what he terms “the society of performance.” These practices, he claims, create space for the reconstitution of the self beyond metrics of efficiency and external validation.

Although Han does not engage directly with Islamic practices, his emphasis on contemplation as a formative discipline parallels the Islamic concept of khushūʿ—the mindful, humble presence of heart in prayer. In Islamic tradition, khushūʿ is not an incidental quality but a core spiritual aspiration, deeply embedded in both Qur’anic discourse (e.g., Q 23:2) and prophetic teachings. It signifies a mode of attentiveness that anchors the self in divine presence and shields it from worldly distraction. When prayer is performed with khushūʿ, it becomes more than a legal duty; it is transformed into an ontological act of self-renewal and spiritual reorientation. In this light, Han’s philosophy supports a reinterpretation of ṣalāh as a countercultural and spiritually liberating practice—a ritual pedagogy that resists fragmentation and nurtures interior depth.

Similarly, the work of Elizabeth Bucar in the domain of Islamic virtue ethics offers a valuable framework for rethinking ṣalāh as a moral and pedagogical act embedded within lived ethical contexts. In her influential book Pious Fashion (Bucar 2017) and related writings, Bucar investigates how embodied religious practices—such as clothing choices, comportment, and ritual behavior—function as “technologies of the self” that shape ethical subjectivity. Drawing upon Foucault’s later work on ethics and subject formation, Bucar reframes Islamic practices not as static norms, but as dynamic performances through which individuals internalize and express their moral commitments.

While her primary focus is on Muslim women’s dress, the underlying ethical and performative logic applies to ṣalāh as well. Prayer, in this view, is not merely a demonstration of piety but a sustained moral exercise that forms intention, disciplines desire, and aligns the self with transcendent values. It is an act through which the worshiper enacts submission, cultivates sincerity (ikhlāṣ), and rehearses humility in a repeated and embodied manner. By incorporating this performative perspective, we can appreciate ṣalāh as a lived ethic—an action that trains the self in virtues essential for navigating both personal and communal life.

Integrating these contemporary philosophical and ethical perspectives significantly enhances the epistemological scope of this study. It allows for a reconceptualization of ṣalāh as more than a doctrinal obligation; rather, it is understood as a holistic praxis that intersects with pedagogy, ontology, and moral formation. This approach also aligns with current trends in Islamic Practical Theology, which seeks to bridge the gap between normative textual traditions and the lived religious experiences of Muslims in various socio-cultural contexts. Within this framework, ṣalāh is not only preserved as a sacred act of worship but also reinterpreted as an educational tool for nurturing ethical awareness, spiritual resilience, and embodied faith.

By engaging with thinkers like Han and Bucar, the present study contributes to a broader discourse that seeks to revitalize Islamic ritual life through intellectually robust and experientially grounded frameworks. Such integration is crucial for articulating how ṣalāh can serve as a resource for moral orientation and identity stability in a world increasingly marked by distraction, moral ambiguity, and existential dislocation. In doing so, the research affirms that the Islamic prayer is not only spiritually significant but also philosophically and pedagogically indispensable.

3. Discussion

The centrality of ṣalāh in the Islamic worldview is underscored by its frequent mention in the Qur’an—appearing no less than sixty-seven times, often alongside virtues such as patience, charity, and God-consciousness. By “Islamic worldview,” this study refers to the Qur’anically grounded vision of reality that integrates faith in God, moral accountability, and human purpose with educational and social practice.

Building on this horizon, ṣalāh is approached here not as a discrete legal duty but as an integrative educational practice that aligns outer form and inner intent. Its ritual grammar—embodied postures, verbal remembrance, and mindful presence—operates as a formative discipline through which ethical awareness and communal identity are cultivated.

Classical exegetes such as al-Rāghib al-Iṣfahānī highlighted that ṣalāh, while originally denoting supplication (duʿāʾ), came to designate the ritual act of worship because of its close association with prayerfulness and purification. According to his analysis, ṣalāh encompasses both outward and inward dimensions of purification, making it not just a formal act of devotion, but a comprehensive process of ethical and spiritual refinement (al-Rāghib al-Iṣfahānī 1412).

At the heart of this study is the claim that ṣalāh functions as a comprehensive ritual pedagogy that shapes the believer’s inner and outer life. Drawing on classical insights (al-Ghazālī n.d., vol. 1, p. 144; Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyyah 2019a, p. 109) and contemporary frames in virtue ethics and ritual pedagogy (Işık 2022; Bucar 2017; Han 2023; Sahin 2013), we argue that through intentional repetition and presence, prayer habituates humility, sincerity, patience, and ethical responsibility—inscribing these virtues into one’s moral disposition and identity.

Building on the rich legacy of scholars such as al-Ghazālī and Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyyah, this study emphasizes that prayer functions as a site of tazkiyat al-nafs—the ethical refinement and spiritual elevation of the self (al-Ghazālī n.d., vol. 1, pp. 144–46; Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyyah 2019a, p. 109). Ibn Qayyim eloquently describes ṣalāh as the ultimate source of spiritual joy and divine intimacy, stating:

“There is no doubt that prayer is the delight of the lovers’ eyes, the pleasure of the monotheists’ souls, the touchstone of the truthful, and the measure of the seekers’ states. It is God’s mercy gifted to His servants: He guided them to it and made them aware of it out of mercy and honor—not out of need, but out of grace and generosity. He made it an act of worship for both the heart and the limbs, granting the heart the greater share—its turning to its Lord, rejoicing in His nearness, delighting in His love, exulting in standing before Him, and fully devoting itself to Him during this act of worship without distraction”.

(Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyyah 2019a, p. 109)

This vivid portrayal positions ṣalāh not as a burdensome ritual, but as a comprehensive spiritual discipline that tames the ego, refines intention, and fosters nearness to God. The unique contribution of this paper lies in bridging such classical insights with contemporary frameworks in virtue ethics and ritual pedagogy, which view religious practice not merely as symbolic, but as deeply formative on both pedagogical and psychological levels (Han 2023; Bucar 2017; Işık 2022).

Crucially, this study affirms that ṣalāh can no longer be examined purely within the confines of jurisprudence or theology. Instead, its examination must extend into the fields of practical theology, moral pedagogy, and spiritual psychology to fully appreciate its integrative function in the life of the modern Muslim (Işık 2022; Sahin 2013). As such, ṣalāh must be viewed not in isolation, but within a broader ecosystem of educational elements—taʿlīm (instruction), tarbiyah (moral nurturing), and tazkiyat (spiritual refinement)—all of which intersect in the act of worship (Bucar 2017).

Moreover, by placing ṣalāh at the center of this dialogical engagement between tradition and modernity, this study contributes to the ongoing reconfiguration of Islamic educational philosophy (Sahin 2013; Işık 2022). It calls for models that go beyond textual transmission to embrace ritual as epistemology—a way of knowing, becoming, and relating to the world that is embodied, repeated, and theologically grounded (Bucar 2017; Han 2023).

While this study is primarily conceptual and analytical, it also acknowledges the importance of examining the lived experience of ṣalāh in contemporary Muslim life. Ethnographic and educational studies, such as Henkel’s (2005) analysis of prayer as a public marker of commitment and Brooks’ (2018) exploration of prayer in an American Islamic school, illustrate how ṣalāh functions within diverse social contexts. These insights complement the normative and theological dimensions emphasized here and highlight the value of integrating lived religion perspectives. Future research may build on this foundation by further exploring how daily prayer shapes identity and moral agency in different cultural and generational settings.

3.1. Ṣalāh as a Multi-Dimensional Pedagogical Praxis

This study’s findings—anchored in classical theological insights and supported by contemporary educational research—demonstrate that ṣalāh functions as a multi-dimensional educational process that engages the human being emotionally, cognitively, behaviorally, and spiritually. Rather than being a static act, it is a dynamic and integrative ritual that shapes the heart, trains the mind, and disciplines the will. This layered functionality embodies the Islamic vision of education as shāmil (holistic), where the goal is not simply the transmission of knowledge but the ethical transformation of character and the spiritual cultivation of the soul (Sahin 2013; Işık 2022).

This perspective is deeply rooted in the theological writings of scholars such as al-Ghazālī and Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyyah, both of whom emphasized the formative impact of ṣalāh on the moral and spiritual self. For al-Ghazālī, prayer is a gradual training in ḥuḍūr al-qalb (presence of heart) and khushūʿ (mindful humility), facilitating a shift from mere external conformity to inward ethical alignment (al-Ghazālī n.d., vol. 1, pp. 144–46). Ibn Qayyim, building on this, conceptualized ṣalāh as a moral regimen that disciplines the nafs, tempers desire, and guides the soul toward al-saʿādah al-akhlāqiyyah—a form of moral happiness rooted in divine obedience and spiritual harmony (Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyyah 2019a, p. 109). Their insights converge in portraying ṣalāh as a repeated act of moral calibration through which the believer continuously refines intention, restrains impulse, and aligns with transcendent meaning.

Empirical studies in Islamic pedagogy affirm the educational utility of ṣalāh, particularly in its capacity to shape the moral and psychological development of children and adolescents (Muhammad and Desari 2023). When systematically integrated into Islamic schooling systems, prayer functions as a structured moral curriculum that instills values such as punctuality, self-discipline, humility, and a sense of accountability toward both God and others. In early childhood contexts, field studies indicate that practices like ṣalāt al-ḍuḥā promote emotional regulation, empathy, and cognitive awareness—key indicators of a spiritually grounded and ethically resilient personality. Such findings reaffirm that ṣalāh is not merely a devotional obligation, but a scalable pedagogical tool whose transformative effects can be cultivated intentionally across age groups and learning environments.

The Qur’an frames prayer as morally efficacious—“Indeed, the prayer restrains from shameful and unjust deeds” (Q 29:45)—and this theological claim coheres with classical accounts that link the ritual’s structure to ethical self-regulation (al-Ghazālī n.d., vol. 1, p. 144). In educational terms, this translates into punctuality, self-discipline, and accountability, which extend beyond worship to civic and interpersonal life. At the same time, classical scholars cautioned that while ṣalāh remains valid in its outward form even without khushūʿ, its true pedagogical and transformative impact depends on the degree of inner attentiveness and sincerity that accompany its performance.

In this respect, the process of tazkiyat al-nafs actualized through ṣalāh is neither symbolic nor merely metaphorical—it is an existential and transformative practice. Rooted in daily repetition and intentional presence, it furnishes the believer with inner strength to resist moral deterioration, withstand the distractions of modern life, and orient their being toward ethical and spiritual excellence. This holistic understanding of prayer challenges reductionist approaches that treat it as a static obligation, severed from its ethical and pedagogical consequences. Rather than a ritual formality, ṣalāh emerges as a dynamic axis of moral education—one that shapes character, anchors spiritual identity, and nurtures virtue within both personal and communal spheres. As Ibn Taymiyyah insightfully writes, “the delight attained through remembrance of God and prayer remains, dispelling anxiety and sorrow—not only during the act itself. As Allah says: ‘Seek help through patience and prayer’ (Q 2:45), and ‘Indeed, prayer restrains from shameful and unjust deeds’ (Q 29:45). In this noble and lasting benefit that repels harm lies what suffices over those [pleasures] that are deficient.” (Ibn Taymiyyah 1983, vol. 2, p. 81).

In addition to its spiritual and moral dimensions, ṣalāh functions as a practical regimen that cultivates personal discipline and time-consciousness. The Qur’anic verse, “Indeed, prayer has been decreed upon the believers at fixed times” (Q 4:103), affirms that prayer is not left to individual whim but anchored in a divinely ordained schedule (Ibn Kathīr 1999, vol. 2, p. 403). This rhythmic obligation trains the believer in punctuality, regularity, and responsibility—habits that extend beyond worship to encompass both religious and worldly duties. Through consistent adherence to daily prayer times, Muslims internalize a structured approach to life that reinforces accountability, order, and purpose.

Importantly, this study contends that ṣalāh must be reintegrated into a holistic framework of Islamic education that harmonizes taʿlīm (instruction), tarbiyah (moral and emotional nurturing), and tazkiyat (spiritual refinement). Within this triadic model, prayer is no longer viewed as an isolated ritual, but as a unifying axis through which belief, ethical action, and inner transformation converge. In this light, ṣalāh transcends performative obligation to become a form of theological pedagogy—a lived curriculum that educates the heart, disciplines the will, and reforms the self from within (Işık 2022; Sahin 2013).

Furthermore, from an eschatological perspective, ṣalāh serves as a continuous preparation for the ultimate encounter with God in the Hereafter. It reminds the believer not only of their metaphysical accountability before the Divine but also of their ethical responsibilities toward fellow human beings. This dual orientation—to the transcendent and the terrestrial—renders ṣalāh a daily source of spiritual vitality, moral attentiveness, and existential clarity. It nurtures taqwā (God-consciousness), grounds ethical behavior, and fortifies the soul against fragmentation, distraction, and spiritual decline. In this light, ṣalāh may be understood as both a protective shield against inner ruin and a gateway to enduring moral excellence (al-Ghazālī n.d., vol. 1, pp. 144–46; Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyyah 2019a, p. 109).

3.2. Identity, Embodiment, and Ethical Subjectivity

The Qur’an repeatedly characterizes the true believer as one who not only professes faith but establishes and maintains ritual prayer (yuqīmūna al-ṣalāh). One of the clearest instances appears in Sūrat al-Baqarah:

“Alladhīna yuʾminūna bil-ghaybi wa yuqīmūna al-ṣalāh wa mimmā razaqnāhum yunfiqūn”

“Those who believe in the unseen, establish prayer, and spend from what We have provided for them”.

(Q 2:3)

This verse captures the Qur’anic vision of faith as a synthesis of conviction (īmān), ritual embodiment (ṣalāh), and ethical action (infāq). The placement of ṣalāh immediately after belief in the unseen underscores its central role as the first enacted manifestation of faith, making it a defining marker of Muslim identity. Classical exegetes such as al-Qurṭubī interpret iqāmat al-ṣalāh not merely as performance, but as perfection and perseverance in both form and spirit (al-Qurṭubī 1964, vol. 1, p.162).

The role of ṣalāh in shaping Muslim identity extends far beyond theological affirmation or doctrinal conformity; it operates primarily through embodied practice, wherein belief is enacted, and identity is inscribed through disciplined, repeated bodily performance. Anthropological and sociological studies (e.g., Henkel 2005) consistently demonstrate that ritual prayer is not merely a symbolic expression of faith, but a formative process through which individuals actively construct, negotiate, and perform their religious and ethical selves.

In contrast to abstract conceptions of identity based solely on theological assent or ideological affiliation, these studies reveal that Muslim subjectivity is intimately shaped by embodied practice—by what the body does: how it bows, stands, recites, and returns to prayer with conscious intentionality. The disciplined rhythm of ṣalāh, performed five times daily over the span of a lifetime, cultivates a habitual moral disposition (malakah) that harmonizes cognition, emotion, and volition. Within this framework, identity is not a fixed essence one possesses, but a dynamic formation one inhabits—and ṣalāh stands as one of the central ritual sites through which this formation is continuously enacted and reinforced (Henkel 2005; al-Ghazālī n.d., vol. 1, pp. 144–46; Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyyah 2019a, p. 109).

This perspective affirms the Islamic theological principle that ʿibādah (worship) is not merely a matter of fulfilling divine commands, but a process of inner and outer transformation. In ṣalāh, the integration of bodily movement, verbal remembrance (dhikr), and internal focus (khushūʿ) generates a pedagogical coherence through which the entire person is educated—physically, spiritually, and ethically. The significance of this process lies in its intentional performativity: the believer does not simply repeat ritual gestures, but enacts surrender, embodies servitude, and actively trains the self toward virtue and moral excellence (al-Ghazālī n.d., vol. 1, pp. 144–46; Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyyah 2019a, p. 109; Sahin 2013).

Moreover, in diverse sociocultural contexts—particularly within Muslim minority communities—ṣalāh emerges as a site of resilience, resistance, and moral agency. It serves as an existential anchor in environments where Islamic values are often marginalized, contested, or rendered invisible. The deliberate act of setting aside time and space for prayer within secular or pluralistic societies constitutes not only an expression of devotion, but also a performative assertion of religious presence, identity, and intentionality. In such contexts, ṣalāh functions as both a means of sustaining moral coherence and a spiritual strategy for navigating existential uncertainty and socio-cultural displacement (Henkel 2005; Işık 2022).

For many Muslims living in such environments, prayer is not merely a routine practice—it becomes a conscious and, at times, countercultural act of self-definition. It resists the assimilative forces of consumerism, secularism, and cultural conformity, asserting instead a rhythm of life anchored in divine consciousness and spiritual intentionality. In this sense, ṣalāh functions as both a moral compass and an anchor of identity, offering continuity with Islamic tradition while enabling adaptive resilience within pluralistic and often challenging contexts (Henkel 2005; Işık 2022).

From the standpoint of Islamic Practical Theology, these findings highlight a crucial dimension of ritual practice: its capacity to generate not only spiritual awareness but also existential meaning and ethical rootedness amid conditions of social flux. Through the embodied performance of religious commitments, Muslims are not merely preserving inherited identities; they are actively reconfiguring and reaffirming them in light of changing contexts and lived experiences (Işık 2022; Sahin 2013; Bucar 2017).

This perspective challenges reductionist conceptions of identity that portray it as static, inherited, or merely doctrinal. Instead, it affirms identity as a dynamic and negotiated process—one that is continually shaped and sustained through embodied practices such as ṣalāh. In this framework, prayer functions as a formative grammar of faith: a ritual syntax through which the self is shaped, disciplined, and expressed in ways that transcend verbal articulation. It offers continuity amidst change, structure amidst uncertainty, and existential coherence amidst fragmentation (Bucar 2017; Işık 2022; Sahin 2013).

3.3. Recontextualizing Ṣalāh Through Contemporary Ethical Philosophy

Contemporary ethical philosophy helps recontextualize ṣalāh’s formative power. Han’s critique of the “society of performance” clarifies how contemplative attention in prayer counters acceleration and distraction, while Bucar’s account of “technologies of the self” illumines how repeated embodied acts cultivate stable moral orientation (Han 2023; Bucar 2017).

From an Islamic perspective, khushūʿ is not merely an emotional state, but a spiritual discipline cultivated through embodied comportment, cognitive attentiveness, and intentional submission. Viewed through this lens, ṣalāh may be understood as a ritual technology of inner liberation—an embodied act that counters external fragmentation by anchoring the self in divine presence. Han’s reflections provide a valuable conceptual vocabulary for articulating the countercultural significance of prayer in an age saturated with distraction and superficiality. They invite Muslims to reimagine ṣalāh not simply as a religious obligation, but as a philosophical and existential intervention—a daily disruption of hypermodern tempo in pursuit of spiritual depth and intentionality (Han 2023; Işık 2022).

Complementing Han’s philosophical critique, Elizabeth Bucar’s work in the field of Islamic virtue ethics—particularly in Pious Fashion (Bucar 2017) offers a distinct yet equally valuable contribution. Drawing on Michel Foucault’s later theories of ethical subject-formation (Foucault 1988), Bucar conceptualizes religious practices—especially dress, bodily comportment, and ritual—as “technologies of the self” that cultivate moral orientation and internal disposition. Although her primary focus is on Muslim women’s dress practices, the foundational logic is readily applicable to ṣalāh: through structured and repetitive bodily acts, the self is shaped in accordance with a normative ethical framework (Bucar 2017).

From this vantage point, ṣalāh may be understood as a moral pedagogy in motion—a repeated ritual performance through which the believer’s subjectivity is disciplined, refined, and reoriented toward virtues such as humility (tawāḍuʿ), sincerity (ikhlāṣ), patience (ṣabr), and accountability before God (taqwā). Bucar’s framework underscores that the ethical efficacy of ṣalāh resides not merely in what it symbolizes, but in what it accomplishes over time—how it configures intention, habituates moral orientation, and establishes a performative space for ethical deliberation and self-cultivation (Bucar 2017).

By situating ṣalāh within this expanded moral-epistemological paradigm, the present study advances the broader aims of Islamic Practical Theology, which seeks to bridge the gap between lived religious experience and normative theological commitments. This recontextualization challenges reductionist and functionalist interpretations of prayer that reduce it to mere obligation devoid of transformation. Instead, it foregrounds ritual as ontology-in-action—a formative process through which the ethical self is constituted via embodied repetition, intentional engagement, and sustained spiritual focus (Işık 2022; Sahin 2013; Bucar 2017).

This philosophical re-framing is particularly vital in our contemporary moment, where traditional conceptions of piety and identity are being reconfigured under the pressures of secular, liberal, and consumerist ideologies. Within this shifting landscape, ṣalāh emerges as a practice of rootedness—an existential anchor that bridges the metaphysical with the practical, the historical with the contemporary, and the spiritual with the pedagogical. It affirms that in prayer, the Muslim does not merely obey but becomes—a subject formed through repetition, orientation, and embodied devotion (Han 2023; Bucar 2017; Işık 2022).

3.4. Toward a Practical Theological Model of Ritual Education

Building on the preceding analyses, this study advances a practical theological framework for conceptualizing and implementing ṣalāh as a foundational component of ritual education in Islamic pedagogy. The findings suggest that when ṣalāh is approached through a holistic and interdisciplinary lens, it functions not merely as an act of devotional compliance, but as a transformative pedagogical process. This process entails the cultivation of inner awareness, moral discipline, spiritual intentionality, and ethical identity—dimensions essential to the formation of the Muslim self in both personal and communal contexts (Işık 2022; Sahin 2013).

A practical theological model of ritual education centers on three interrelated dimensions:

• Epistemological Depth

Ṣalāh is not only a devotional act but an epistemic performance grounded in divine revelation, and simultaneously accessible through embodied cognition and spiritual intuition. It becomes a locus where knowledge of God (maʿrifah), self-awareness (taʿāruf nafsī), and moral reality (ḥaqīqah akhlāqiyyah) converge and mutually reinforce one another. Recognizing this epistemological dimension deepens our understanding of ritual as a source of ethical insight rather than merely a requirement of compliance.

2.

Formative Praxis

The educational force of ṣalāh lies in its repetitive structure, embodied rhythm, and affective intensity. A practical theology of ritual highlights how such embodied acts cultivate ethical dispositions over time, drawing from both classical Islamic theories of tazkiyat and insights from contemporary moral psychology. From this perspective, ṣalāh functions as moral training-in-motion—an experiential curriculum through which virtues are not only conveyed but rehearsed, internalized, and embodied.

3.

Contextual Integration

This model ultimately calls for integrating ṣalāh within the broader curricular and communal ecosystems of taʿlīm (instruction), tarbiyah (moral nurturing), and tazkiyat (spiritual refinement). It involves crafting educational environments that facilitate reflective prayer, foster intentional spiritual presence, and connect ritual practice with ethical responsibility in learners’ everyday lives. In this way, practical theology bridges ritual embodiment and social ethics, ensuring that the spiritual depth of ṣalāh is not merely performed, but lived (Işık 2022; Sahin 2013; Noordin and Rahman 2017).

This integrative model carries significant implications for Islamic education across both majority-Muslim and minority contexts. It calls upon educators, imams, parents, and scholars to approach ṣalāh not as an isolated ritual obligation, but as a central pedagogical instrument for cultivating moral agents rooted in both divine connection and social responsibility. Moreover, it offers a timely response to contemporary challenges—such as identity fragmentation, spiritual alienation, and ethical relativism—by presenting a deeply rooted yet contextually adaptive approach to character education through ritual practice.

In sum, the proposed model positions ṣalāh at the very heart of Islamic Practical Theology—as a living ritual that embodies knowledge, forms character, anchors identity, and fosters the virtues essential to a God-conscious life.

4. Methodology

This study adopts a descriptive–analytical methodology, which consists of two main steps: first, describing the normative structure and spiritual dimensions of ṣalāh as presented in Islamic sources; and second, analyzing these dimensions for their educational and pedagogical implications. This method was chosen over empirical or quantitative approaches because the aim of the paper is conceptual and theological rather than statistical—it seeks to build a framework that bridges Islamic textual traditions with contemporary educational theory.

The selection of sources in this study was guided by clear boundaries and quality measures to ensure both scholarly rigor and thematic relevance. Qur’ānic verses were chosen based on their explicit reference to ṣalāh or their articulation of its ethical-spiritual functions. Aḥādīth were included where they emphasize the formative and moral aspects of prayer, drawing from reliable canonical collections and supported by classical commentaries. Classical works were selected if t framework hey provided systematic treatment of the inward and pedagogical dimensions of prayer, with particular emphasis on al-Ghazālī and Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyyah, while also acknowledging alternative jurisprudential perspectives. Contemporary academic sources were included on the basis of peer-reviewed status, relevance to Islamic pedagogy, and their engagement with themes of ritual, virtue ethics, or identity formation. This layered selection ensured a balanced corpus that integrates textual, theological, and philosophical dimensions while maintaining methodological transparency.

The analytical validity of this study is strengthened by the triangulation of multiple source types. Classical Islamic texts provide authoritative theological and spiritual frameworks for understanding ṣalāh; contemporary educational and pedagogical research offers empirical and theoretical insights into its formative functions; and philosophical works introduce critical perspectives that challenge idealized readings of ritual practice. The deliberate integration of these diverse sources ensures that the analysis is not only rooted in Islamic tradition but also critically engaged with modern scholarship, thereby enhancing its credibility and relevance to both theological and educational discourses.

Unless otherwise indicated, translations from Arabic sources are the author’s own. Where published English translations were consulted, they are cited directly. Key Arabic concepts—such as tazkiyat al-nafs, khushūʿ, and tarbiyah—are transliterated and briefly defined at first mention to ensure clarity for an international readership. Given the author’s scholarly orientation within Islamic educational thought, it is important to acknowledge the potential influence of this perspective on the framing and interpretation of the study. While the commitment to Islamic pedagogy provides a constructive lens through which the formative dimensions of ṣalāh can be appreciated, it also carries the risk of emphasizing its transformative potential at the expense of more critical or juridical perspectives. To mitigate this, the analysis deliberately incorporates discussions of ritual formalism, the validity of prayer without inner humility (khushūʿ), and the warnings of classical scholars such as al-Ghazālī and Ibn Qayyim regarding spiritually deficient forms of practice. In addition, contemporary philosophical critiques (e.g., Han’s analysis of performance culture and Bucar’s emphasis on the contested nature of embodied religious practices) are engaged to ensure a balanced and critically aware approach. By making this reflexive stance explicit, the study aims to enhance transparency, acknowledge potential bias, and strengthen the rigor of its academic contribution.

This study is conceptual and analytical rather than empirical. While it draws upon a broad corpus of Qur’ānic verses, aḥādīth, classical texts, and contemporary scholarship, its scope is limited by the absence of fieldwork or ethnographic data. Consequently, the findings are interpretive and theoretical in nature, aiming to construct a pedagogical and theological framework rather than to measure lived experiences. In addition, while the author’s commitment to Islamic educational thought provides a constructive interpretive lens, it also entails the risk of emphasizing transformative dimensions of ṣalāh over more juridical or critical perspectives. These limitations do not undermine the study’s contribution; rather, they clarify its scope and highlight areas for future empirical investigation.

The analysis is guided by the concerns of Islamic Practical Theology, which emphasizes lived faith, the role of ritual in spiritual formation, and the integration of normative teachings with ethical practice. In this study, ṣalāh is examined simultaneously as a ritual text and as a pedagogical act—one that embodies divine meaning, cultivates inner awareness, and sustains moral identity in dynamic sociocultural contexts.

5. Conclusions: Towards a Model of Ritual Education in Islamic Practical Theology (Rewritten and Enriched)

This study has sought to reposition ṣalāh not merely as a ritual obligation, but as a foundational site of spiritual and moral formation, central to the educational dimensions of Islamic Practical Theology. Through a descriptive-analytical approach drawing on classical Islamic sources and contemporary ethical theory, the research has highlighted the role of prayer in cultivating internal dispositions such as humility, mindfulness, sincerity, patience, and submission—virtues that collectively shape a lived Islamic identity and fortify the ethical self in both personal and communal dimensions.

By engaging the theological insights of classical scholars such as al-Ghazālī and Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyyah, alongside critical voices like Byung-Chul Han and Elizabeth Bucar, the paper demonstrated how ṣalāh functions both as a pedagogical act and as a ritual technology of the self. It embodies a dual role: reinforcing theological meanings through embodied repetition and resisting the moral fragmentation of modern hyperculture by anchoring the self in divine intentionality and spiritual order. The performative nature of ṣalāh, enacted through bodily discipline, cognitive presence, and emotional alignment, reveals its function not only as worship but as a daily curriculum in virtue cultivation and identity formation.

The key contribution of this paper lies in proposing a practical theological framework in which ṣalāh is understood as a structured, educational, and identity-forming practice. This model integrates the foundational triad of taʿlīm (instruction), tarbiyah (moral nurturing), and tazkiyat (spiritual refinement), presenting ṣalāh as a dynamic axis around which theological knowledge, ethical conduct, and spiritual depth cohere. It thus contributes not only to theological reflection but also to the development of Islamic pedagogical models that embed spirituality and character education within the lived experience of ritual.

This integrative vision affirms that ṣalāh is not an isolated act of piety, but a holistic pedagogical process that forms the believer cognitively, emotionally, spiritually, and morally. Within the framework of Islamic Practical Theology, it serves as a performative grammar of faith—one that educates the whole person and aligns daily practice with divine purpose. The study has shown how prayer sustains moral resilience, reinforces identity in pluralistic and secular contexts, and offers a countercultural mode of self-cultivation grounded in theological meaning.

It should be emphasized that the conclusions of this study are conceptual rather than empirical, grounded in classical Islamic sources, ethical reasoning, and philosophical reflection. Within this theoretical framework, ritual prayer operates as a dynamic and holistic model for moral and spiritual development in Islamic educational thought.

While the methodological limitations of this study have been acknowledged earlier, its conceptual contribution remains to provide a framework for understanding ṣalāh as a dynamic axis of spiritual and educational formation.

Ultimately, this inquiry affirms that ṣalāh, when viewed through the lens of Islamic Practical Theology, is not merely a symbol of religious identity but a formative, embodied, and educational act—a practice that continually makes and remakes the ethical self. As both a theological anchor and a pedagogical engine, ṣalāh deserves sustained scholarly attention for its capacity to bridge tradition and transformation, ritual and education, transcendence and moral agency in the formation of contemporary Muslim subjectivity.