Religiosity and University Students’ Attitudes About Vaccination Against COVID-19
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. COVID-19 and Vaccination
1.2. COVID-19 and Religion
1.3. Religiosity and Conspiracy Theories
1.4. Vaccination, Religiosity and Conspiracy Theories
1.5. Religion in the Republic of Serbia
- (a)
- Whether textbooks are sufficiently adjusted in its content to be understood by students from lower grades;
- (b)
- Whether it is necessary to improve the curriculum (ZUOV 2013);
- (c)
- Whether Religious Education should be kept in the existing (confessional) form or adjust it in such a way as to be designed by the combined model6 (Šuvaković et al. 2023b);
- (d)
- Unresolved work status of Religious Education teachers (Bishop Irinej of Bačka 2023), as many as 2160, out of whom 1756 are in charge of children of Orthodox Christianity, 209—of Islam, 157—of Roman Catholic, and 38—of Protestant confession (Ministry of Education 2024).
2. Results
3. Materials and Methods
- Socio-demographic features: gender, year of study, major subjects
- Religiosity scale (Ljubotina 2004—version of Stiplošek 2002). Here, it is important to note that there are different approaches in examining the concept of religiosity (Matejević and Stojanović 2020). The majority of sociological studies see religiosity as the individual’s self-assessment, meaning that, the attitude about religiosity is treated as a dichotomous variable (“Do you consider yourself a believer?”), the assessment on five-degree Likert scale (“How religious are you?” or “How often do you go to church?”) (Matejević and Stojanović 2020), with the answers ranging from “not at all” to “absolutely” or “quantified”) or it is treated as a confessional question, where the individual’s religiosity is practically made equal to religious affiliation (Lebedev 2005). However, both in sociology and in other sciences (e.g., psychology), there are also different approaches trying to quantify religiosity and determine the level of religiosity of each individual, as well as to examine in further detail the structure of the concept of religiosity itself (Matejević and Stojanović 2020), most often using the dimensions of religiosity and the multi-dimensional approach (Blagojević 2012). In our research, we opted for this approach and in determining the level of university students’ religiosity, we used the scale of religiosity assessment, which was constructed and reduced by Ljubotina, based on the theoretical concept of Glock and Stark (Ljubotina 2004; Stiplošek 2002). The religiosity scale originally had five dimensions of religiosity (belief, ritual, experience, knowledge, consequences) and contained 32 statements. Using the factor analysis, Ljubotina established the presence of three dimensions contained in 24 items. The first dimension is spirituality—which denotes belief and religious experiences of an individual. Religiosity is presented as a personal choice and may be perceived as a primary aspect of religion. In general, in psychological terms, we can see it as intrinsic religiosity in a narrower sense. It is represented by statements such as: “I sometimes feel the presence of God or a Divine being”. The ritual dimension of religiosity is represented by the statements such as “I know basic prayers”. It refers to the practice of different rituals and rites prescribed by the religious community. The third dimension is the influence of religion on behaviour. It is represented by the statements such as “I am not in favour of marriage with a member of other religion”. It refers to the degree of application of religious principles in everyday life. Each sub-scale has eight items, two of which are scored reversely. The result range in the original version of the scale was from 0 to 72, since the respondents answered on a scale from 0—completely false, to 3—completely true. In our research, we used five-degree Likert scale (from 1—I do not agree at all, to 5—I completely agree), on which the respondents assessed the extent to which they agreed with the listed statements. In this manner of assessment, the scores reached on the scale ranged from 24 to 120. The higher result on the scale points to the higher level of religiosity. Moreover, further modification in our research referred to the technical adjustment of the item content, since Ljubotina’s original scale was designed only for Catholic believers (e.g., “I regularly go to places of worship—church, mosque, synagogue, etc.” instead of “I regularly go to church (the temple of God”). In our research, it was done in such a manner as to suit all monotheistic confessions present in our country. However, there is no information whether the previous version used in our country (Gojković et al. 2019; Matejević and Stojanović 2020) was adapted. The reliability of the religiosity scale in our research, as well as in previous research (Matejević and Stojanović 2020) determined Cronbach’s α = 0.96 is quite high, with Cronbach’s α = 0.94. Considering the high coefficients of correlation between the sub-scales, which correlated positively (r = 0.51 to 0.78), and the fact that the sub-scales correlated highly positively with the total score on the religiosity scale (r = 0.74 to 0.94), and that it was to determine the level of religiosity and not of individual components, the further data analysis took into account only the total score in the religiosity questionnaire.
- The university students’ attitudes about various aspects of vaccination:
- (a)
- Whether during the COVID-19 pandemic they observed the prescribed anti-pandemic measures, and if yes, which ones,
- (b)
- Whether they are vaccinated, how many doses and which vaccine they had,
- (c)
- The university students’ reasons for and vaccination,
- (d)
- The attitude about mandatory anti-COVID-19 vaccination,
- (e)
- The opinion about the way the COVID-19 virus was made,
- (f)
- Experiences with COVID-19 during the pandemic (whether they or some of their family members had COVID-19, whether they were hospitalized and whether there were death cases from COVID-19 in their immediate environment).
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
1 | “The transmission of coronaviruses follows aviation lines […] Aviation provided the primary entry point for the virus” (Malm and Mealy 2020). |
2 | This does not refer only to vaccination. For example, Jehovah’s witnesses do not accept blood transfusion because of religious reasons. |
3 | Epidemiologically looking, these terms do not have the same meaning. Self-isolation refers to the legal obligation of a healthy person to be self-isolated during a certain period if he/she has come to our country from abroad, or if he/she was in contact with a potentially infected person, without being aware of it, or if that person belongs to a certain age group, etc. Isolation refers to placing in isolation the person with the COVID-19 symptoms, but has tested negative. Because of the mass character, isolation at home was usually applied. Finally, quarantine refers specifically to staying in hospital, i.e., hospitalization of the infected, particularly those with a more serious form of this disease. When speaking of quarantine measures, in this paper we refer to the whole spectrum of measures which are, naturally, distinguished by epidemiology. |
4 | This year, for the first time in the history of the Catholic Church in Serbia, Pope Francis, has appointed László Német, a Belgrade archbishop, for a cardinal. |
5 | This trend can also be observed in other Eastern bloc countries after the collapse of real socialism (Berger 1999; Ramet 2014; Kulska 2020; Flere and Klanjšek 2014; Blagojević 2012; Petrović 2011; Petrović and Šuvaković 2013; Vukomanović 2001; Raduški 2018). However, it should be noted that the specific nature of the return to religion in the countries founded after the breakup of Yugoslavia also lies in the fact that religious affiliation was at the same time considered an important feature of national identity (Bodrožić 2014; Mitrović 2021; Šuvaković et al. 2023a; Popić 2024; Vučković 2024; Šuvaković 2024, p. 672). |
6 | In one part of schooling, it may be confessional, while in higher grades it may be based on the scientific attitude towards religion as a social phenomenon. However, neither the religious communitiesin Serbia nor the big majority of our respondents would accept the combined model (8%), but would instead choose exclusively the confessional model (62%), while others think that religion should be studied as a social phenomenon (24%) or that it should be displaced from schools (6%) (Šuvaković et al. 2023b). |
7 | In Serbia, there are places with the local epidemic of measles due to the non-vaccination of children, although the MMR vaccine is legally prescribed as compulsory. Although the last national epidemic of measles occurred in 2017, it was followed by a substantial decrease in the share of the vaccinated people, thus contributing to local epidemics, for example in Novi Pazar and Tutin (Batut 2023). |
8 | The online survey is, by its type, a form of a written survey because it “implies written communication between the interviewer and the respondent”, whereas its specific feature is that it is given in electronic form, i.e., that it is distributed via the Internet (see Šuvaković 2000, pp. 110, 113). |
9 | All the data we give for general 18+ population refer to the period until 30 September 2021. Since vaccination continued after that date as well, with undertaking a whole spectrum of measures for its broader scope, the data we have given here should not be considered final, but only precisely processed and available. According to the assessments by some of the members of the Crisis Headquarters for the fight against COVID-19, the share of 18+ population that was vaccinated with minimum two doses until the end of 2022 was not below 60%. We consider these data valid. |
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Religion | Number of Believers | Number of Religious Education Teachers | Ratio |
---|---|---|---|
Orthodox | 5,387,426 | 1756 | 3068 |
Muslim | 278,212 | 209 | 1331 |
Catholic | 257,269 | 157 | 1639 |
Protestant | 54,678 | 38 | 1438 |
Total | 5,977,585 | 2160 | 2767 |
Sex | Department | Year of Study (Mean Age) | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
male | female | teacher | educator | first | second | third | fourth | fifth |
15 | 336 | 203 | 158 | 82 | 67 | 87 | 74 | 51 |
Low Religious (Result in Category 0–25%) | Moderately Religious (Result in Category 25–75%) | Highly Religious (Result in Category 25% of the Highest 75–100%) | |
---|---|---|---|
M | 1.00–3.06 | 3.07–4.19 | 4.20–5.00 |
N | 90 | 176 | 95 |
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Petrović, J.R.; Šuvaković, U.V.; Nikolić, I.A. Religiosity and University Students’ Attitudes About Vaccination Against COVID-19. Religions 2025, 16, 58. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16010058
Petrović JR, Šuvaković UV, Nikolić IA. Religiosity and University Students’ Attitudes About Vaccination Against COVID-19. Religions. 2025; 16(1):58. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16010058
Chicago/Turabian StylePetrović, Jelena R., Uroš V. Šuvaković, and Ivko A. Nikolić. 2025. "Religiosity and University Students’ Attitudes About Vaccination Against COVID-19" Religions 16, no. 1: 58. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16010058
APA StylePetrović, J. R., Šuvaković, U. V., & Nikolić, I. A. (2025). Religiosity and University Students’ Attitudes About Vaccination Against COVID-19. Religions, 16(1), 58. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16010058