Fading Landscapes of Rural Cemeteries around Wooden Churches on the Polish–Czech Border in Lower Silesia (Poland)

Abstract

The aim of the article was to compare the landscape and cultural value of cemeteries located around wooden churches on the Polish–Czech border in the Lower Silesian Voivodeship. Research regarding the history of the villages was undertaken, describing their development and the construction of the churches and the cemeteries so as to compare changes in cemetery spatial layout, architecture, and landscape. The villages involved were Grzmiąca, Kamieńczyk, Międzygórze, Nowa Bystrzyca, Rybnica Leśna, and Zalesie. The following analyses were conducted: assessment of the visual aspects of the landscape, evaluation of the architectural value, and assessment of land use. In the landscape of Lower Silesia, churchyard cemeteries, which bear witness to the rich past of this region, are gradually but remorselessly deteriorating. Adverse changes are occurring to their spatial layout, to church buildings, as well as in architecture and greenery. The article presents a new approach to the subject of sacred sites through multi-faceted research aimed at protecting the fragile and changing religious landscape.

1. Introduction

In the landscape of Lower Silesia (Poland), many small churchyard cemeteries are part of the testimony to the rich past of this region. Unfortunately, both the cemeteries and the churches—especially the wooden ones—are subject to remorseless deterioration. Additionally, adverse changes are affecting the spatial layout of the cemeteries and their architectural elements, including gates, ossuaries, enclosures, and other structures. The characteristic landscape of small villages is slowly but systematically impoverished by the disappearance of rural landmarks. The Polish–Czech border area is a region where changes are also occurring on a cultural level due to population displacement and the influx of new residents after World War II. As a result, small cemetery areas either completely disappear and are forgotten or new burials take place, erasing the history of former inhabitants.

The aim of this article is to provide a historical analysis and compare the state of preservation of selected cemeteries located near wooden churches on the Polish–Czech border in the Lower Silesian Voivodeship. Additionally, an assessment of cultural and landscape value is conducted, crucial for building the image of heritage sites, both of which shape its identity and influence its development while strengthening the significance of sacred monuments.

2. Materials and Methods

Cemeteries are unique places that provide a wealth of information about the culture and religious patterns of a given region. They serve as a testament to the passage of time, deeply rooted in religious space. Cemeteries are an integral part of the sacred landscape, characterized by specific symbolism, signs, and architectural elements. They are also a distinctive feature of the rural landscape, dominated by church or bell towers. Along with their characteristic composition and greenery, they create a unique cultural space in the Polish countryside. In the villages of the Polish–Czech border region, there are many such small churchyard cemeteries of exceptional historical, architectural, and religious value. A unique part of the cemetery space is its gravestone art and landscape architecture combined with their specific symbolism. The element that undeniably unites it with the village landscape is the greenery, organized and formal within the cemetery but more often informal surrounding it.

This article presents the results of research conducted under the “Rural Churchyard Cemeteries of the Polish–Czech Border in the Landscape of the Lower Silesian Voivodeship” grant financed by the MEiN program “Science for Society” (Publication co-financed from the state budget under the Minister of Education and Science program named “Science for Society”, project number NdS/552172/2022, funding amount 487,978 PLN, total project value 487,978 PLN). The research was undertaken in the field and through analyses of written and historical materials of 106 cemeteries located on the Polish–Czech border since September 2022. During both desk and field research, particular attention was paid to the historical conditions of the cemeteries and the churches located within them. Detailed analyses were conducted of visual and natural aspects, as these have a special impact on landscape value while shaping the value of the space and the identity of the place.

This article presents selected aspects of the research for six sites located on the Polish–Czech border. Six wooden churches were chosen: through their history, their visual value and connections with the local community represent examples of the creation of extraordinary regional monuments, unique on a European scale.

During the desk research, the focus was on analyzing the history of the places themselves, changes in the local communities, and the formation of the religious affiliations of the sites. The results are presented descriptively, and the most important data are compiled in comparative tables.

Based on the field research, an original indicator analysis was conducted considering three key aspects that are particularly important for shaping image and identity. The criteria distinguished comprehensively describe:

• visual aspects of the landscape,
• the architectural value (of churches and architectural elements),
• assessment of land use, with particular emphasis on greenery, which undeniably influences the visual value of the space.

Seventeen indicators were identified in three thematic groups:

• Assessment of Visual Aspects of the Landscape:

  ○

  The visibility of the church and cemetery in the panorama,

  ○

  The orderliness of the cemetery surroundings,

  ○

  The preservation of the cemetery’s compositional layout,

  ○

  The presence of compositional axes,

  ○

  The presence of view openings,

  ○

  The presence of dominants and subdominants within the cemetery and its immediate vicinity.

• Assessment of the Architectural Value:

  ○

  The condition of the church building,

  ○

  The condition of the burial field,

  ○

  The extent of enclosure degradation,

  ○

  The extent of old stonework degradation,

  ○

  The architectural value of the church.

• Assessment of Land Cover Structure:

  ○

  Topographical diversity outside the cemetery,

  ○

  Topographical diversity within the cemetery,

  ○

  Diversity of land use in the immediate vicinity of the cemetery,

  ○

  Condition of the greenery,

  ○

  Orderliness of the greenery,

  ○

  The presence of old trees.

Each criterion was assessed on a five-point scale, with each indicator receiving a value from −2 to 2 (−2, −1, 0, 1, 2), where −2 indicates the lowest score and 2 the highest score.

3. Results

3.1. Location of the Study Area

Detailed analyses were conducted on sites (cemeteries and churches) located in the Polish–Czech border area. These areas are exceptionally attractive in terms of natural beauty, tourism, and landscape. The mountain ranges situated here create stunning scenery, encouraging the use of numerous hiking and biking trails and attracting photographers and painters. These areas are also characterized by a rich and diverse natural environment. Many valuable species of plants and animals can be found here, and the most precious fragments of the Polish–Czech border are under area or species protection (Staffa 1994, 2005).

All six analyzed localities have a rural character. Each one features a cemetery with a church within its grounds. It is also crucial to note that Polish–Czech border areas have been regions of intermingling influences from Polish, Czech, and German states for many years. This is also an area where forced relocations took place after World War II. These changes are evident in the architectural diversity, small details, conditions influencing the functioning of local communities, as well as the legacy and traces of the presence of other nationalities (Herzig et al. 2012) (Figure 1).

3.2. Historical Conditions, Transformations and Their Impact on Shaping Their Contemporary State

3.2.1. Grzmiąca

The oldest village included in the historical analysis is Grzmiąca (German: Donnerau) in the Głuszyca Commune which probably originated in the late 13th century. By the early 14th century, it was reportedly part of the possessions of Rogowiec Castle. In 1392, it was documented as belonging to Nicholas Bolcze, the steward of the court of the dukes of Świdnica at Rogowiec (Häufler 1931). Other sources indicate that Bolcze still owned Grzmiąca in 1428. The original settlement was destroyed during the Hussite Wars in 1428 and remained deserted until 1497 (Kerber 1885; Treblin 1908). During this time, the village was part of the estates of Książ Castle and its owners.

The Thirty Years’ War (1618–1648) had detrimental effects on the village, with military quarters leading to the burning of part of Grzmiąca in 1631. By 1636, there were only 18 inhabited households in the village (Bartsch 1969). In the 17th century, most residents were involved in weaving, animal husbandry, and fruit cultivation (Zimmermann 1785; Bartsch 1969). A school was established in 1742. In 1830, Grzmiąca had a Protestant school, a rural hospital, and a water mill (Knie 1830). During the 18th and 19th centuries, local artisanal workshops operated in the village, including goldsmiths, watchmakers, weavers, distilleries, sawmills, and tanneries (Knie 1845). In 1855, the ironworks “Anna” was founded, operating until 1914 (Reimann 1925).

The church in Grzmiąca was built by the Evangelicals in 1558 as a cemetery chapel. By 1589, the village belonged to the parish of Głuszyca, and from 1606, the church served as a dependent of the Evangelical parish in Głuszyca Górna. This status remained unchanged until 24 March 1654, when the church was taken from the Evangelicals and handed over to the Catholics. In 1671, it became a dependent of the parish in Jedlinka. It underwent several renovations, including in 1619, 1649, 1754, 1800, 1835, and 1847 (Hof 1999). Until the end of World War II, the majority of the population in the village were Evangelicals, but the church was a dependent of the Catholic parish in Głuszyca Górna. After World War II, renovation work was carried out in 1968–1970, 1991–1992, and in 2002. Currently, the church, named after the Nativity of the Blessed Virgin Mary, serves as a dependent of the Roman Catholic parish of Christ the King in Głuszyca, established in 1972 (Bałabuch 2005).

The cemetery in Grzmiąca was probably established around the same time as the construction of the small church in the second half of the 16th century as historical sources do not confirm its earlier existence. The surviving cemetery stone wall, marking its historical boundary, was built between the late 16th and early 18th centuries. In the early 20th century, a new cemetery gate was added to the wall, constructed with two pillars of red brick. Despite the church in Grzmiąca being Catholic, the surrounding cemetery served both Catholic and Evangelical residents of the village until 1945 (Bartsch 1969). After World War II, the cemetery was expanded by removing a section of the cemetery wall and enclosing a new area with wire mesh. In 1991, it was noted that only one tombstone from before 1945 remained, indicating that all historical graves and tombstones had been removed (Janusz 1991). Also in the 1990s, a small cemetery chapel was built on the grounds, and another new cemetery gate was placed in the wall. The only historical elements that remain in the cemetery are its wall and gate (

Table 1. Description of the research sites (Grzmiąca, Kamieńczyk, Rybnica Leśna): comparison of historical conditions and contemporary state (Janusz 1991, 1998; Kieres and Szarapo 1997; Nizińska 1982).

Description of the Sites		Grzmiąca	Kamieńczyk	Rybnica Leśna
Location		Lower Silesian Voivodeship, Wałbrzych County, Głuszyca Commune—rural area	Lower Silesian Voivodeship, Kłodzko County, Międzylesie Commune—rural area	Lower Silesian Voivodeship, Wałbrzych County, Mieroszów Commune—rural area
Time of establishment	church	16th century	17th century	16th century
	cemetery	16th century	16th century	17th century
Heritage protection		Yes	Yes	Yes
Church
Dedicated to		Nativity of the Blessed Virgin Mary	St. Michael the Archangel	St. Jadwiga
Architecture style		Baroque	Baroque	Baroque
Denominational affiliation	in the past	Evangelical	Evangelical	Evangelical
	contemporary	Roman Catholic	Roman Catholic	Roman Catholic

and

Table 2. Analysis of church locations (Grzmiąca, Kamieńczyk, Rybnica Leśna) and architectural elements (Janusz 1991, 1998; Kieres and Szarapo 1997; Nizińska 1982).

	Grzmiąca	Kamieńczyk	Rybnica Leśna
Location of the church and cemetery	Located on a hill, by the main road in the village, away from the center	Located in the center of the village, on a hill among fields away from the main village road	Situated on a small hill, surrounded by a moat, in the central part of the village
Description of the spatial layout	Irregularly shaped cemetery, resembling a trapezoid, clear spatial arrangement. The church is not oriented	Cemetery with an irregular, oval-like plan, clear spatial arrangement outlined by a row of spruce trees. The church is oriented	Oval-shaped cemetery, unclear spatial arrangement. The church is oriented
Important architectural elements	Cemetery wall (before the 18th century), gate (first half of 20th century), tombstones and free-standing slabs (second half of 20th century), graves (second half of 20th century)	Gate and wicket (before 18th century), chapel (second half of 19th century), tombstones and graves (first and second halves of 19th century), wooden crosses on the church wall)	Cemetery wall (before 18th century), gate (before 18th century), bell tower (before 18th century), tombstones and slabs (second half of 19th century), iron crosses (first half of 20th century)

, Figure 2).

3.2.2. Kamieńczyk

Kamieńczyk (German: Steinbach) is an ancient settlement located in the commune of/Międzylesie. Information about its existence dates back to the 13th century. It was destroyed during the Hussite Wars and re-founded in 1564 by brothers Dawid and Michał Tschirnhaus (Volkmer 1889/1890). The inhabitants were engaged in the exploitation of metal ores, which were smelted in a local foundry. For several centuries, it was an agricultural and craft village with workshops such as butchers, weavers, masons and tailors while a school and water mill operated here (Zimmermann 1789; Knie 1845). In the second half of the 19th century, Kamieńczyk began to be recognized as a resort village. After the Prussian acquisition of Kłodzko County in the 18th century, it became part of the Province of Silesia, initially belonging to the Kłodzko district, while from 1816 to 1945, it was part of the Bystrzyckie district. After World War II, the village fell within the administrative borders of Poland, which led to the expulsion of German residents and an influx of Polish settlers; the settlement experienced significant depopulation. From 1975 to 1998, the village was located in the Wałbrzych Voivodeship, and in 2011 only 74 people lived there (Rybka-Ceglecka 1997).

The Church of St. Michael the Archangel in Kamieńczyk was built in 1710 as a wooden cemetery church, constructed with a timber frame (Hof 1999; Brzezicki and Nielsen 2006). At that time, the village belonged to the parish in Międzylesie. The first renovation work related to the church was recorded in 1734 when it was painted by Anton Ferdinand Veit from Prague (Hasse 1935) and a bell was hung in the church tower (Hof 1999). In 1851, the interior of the church was reconstructed (Hasse 1935) and a major renovation took place in 1934 (Brzezicki and Nielsen 2006). From 1996 to 1998, necessary works to secure the church were carried out through a community initiative: the church foundations were strengthened, the roof structure was reinforced, and a new shingle roof was installed. Additionally, the wall cladding of the church and tower were replaced (Bartnik et al. 2005). Today, this small wooden church, representing traditional forms of rural sacred architecture, remains a dependent of the parish in Międzylesie (Table 1 and Table 2). The cemetery next to the church in Kamieńczyk is certainly older than the church itself, which was built in its grounds in 1710. It is speculated that the cemetery could have been established as an Evangelical one after the village was founded; it was certainly in operation by 1631. The cemetery was never enclosed by a wall, and its current boundaries are marked by a wooden fence. In the mid-19th century, a small neo-Gothic cemetery chapel with a gable roof was built there. The cemetery was used by German village residents until 1945. Currently, it is not in use, but it is worth noting that it has been preserved in very good condition (Rybka-Ceglecka 1997) (Table 1 and Table 2, Figure 3).

The cemetery layout in Kamieńczyk is one of the most valuable of its kind preserved in the Polish–Czech border area. Not only has the spatial layout itself been preserved, but the majority of historical tombstones remain in their original positions. Therefore, the cemetery next to the church in Kamieńczyk is considered the best-preserved example of its kind among all those existing in the Kłodzko region. The number of existing tombstones is impressive, estimated at over 100, varying in state of preservation. Some are complete with clear inscriptions, while others lost their inscriptions after the war but remain in their original locations. The majority of tombstones date from the turn of the 20th century and are made of various materials such as stone (sandstone, marble, granite), wood, or cast iron. Stone or concrete individual grave borders have also largely escaped destruction. Of particular note among the preserved tombstones are those made of cast iron in the form of crosses, often adorned with elaborate neo-Gothic and neo-Baroque ornamentation depicting saints and angels. Typical features seen in the Kłodzko region are wooden grave crosses prominently displayed on the church facade, with special attention given to one commemorating Paul Meschner (priest from 1912 to 1932), featuring Secessionist ornamentation. A unique feature designed for tourists and descendants of former residents is the cemetery plan with marked graves and information about the buried individuals. Other compositional elements of the cemetery include a small cemetery chapel, rectangular in plan with a gable roof covered with shingles. Its windows retain original neo-Gothic window frames. Adjacent to the chapel is the cemetery gate, in front of which stands an intriguing sandstone sculptural group of the crucifixion from the late 18th century. In addition to the crucifix depicting the crucified Christ, it includes St. John the Apostle, the Virgin Mary, and a kneeling female figure under the cross identified as both Mary Magdalene and a personification of the Church due to her holding a chalice (Bartnik et al. 2005; Brzezicki and Nielsen 2006; Rybka-Ceglecka 1997) (Table 1 and Table 2).

3.2.3. Rybnica Leśna

Rybnica Leśna, probably established in the 13th century, was originally part of the Rogowiec castle estate (Häufler 1931). The first written mention of the village dates back to 1305 when it was referred to as Rimasrswalde (Bartsch 1969; Hof 1999). It suffered destruction during the Hussite Wars, being described as deserted by 1497, and since 1483 it was part of the Książ castle estate (Bartsch 1969). The reconstruction of the village took place in the first half of the 16th century (Treblin 1908). However, misfortunes continued to affect this small settlement, as in 1631, during the Thirty Years’ War (1618–1648), it was plundered and destroyed by Swedish troops (Häufler 1931). Until the 15th century, Rybnica Leśna belonged to the Książ estate and thus, for most of its history, remained in the possession of the von Hochberg family. The village was home to an evangelical church with a rectory and a school. There were also a windmill, a school, four water mills, and three sawmills operating here (Zimmermann 1785). The residents were mainly engaged in cottage industry weaving (Knie 1830). Before 1945, Rybnica Leśna was primarily known as a tourist and resort village, evident from the numerous inns and taverns that took advantage of its attractive location (Bartsch 1969). It was part of the Wałbrzych district, a position it had held since 1816. Between 1945 and 1946, its German residents were displaced, and Polish settlers began to arrive in their place. Presently, the village is within the administrative boundaries of the Mieroszów commune.

The main tourist attraction of Rybnica Leśna is the wooden church dedicated to St. Hedwig of Silesia. The first mention of a church in Rybnica Leśna dates back to 1305 (Bartsch 1969). The earlier church, situated at the current location, could have been built or reconstructed in 1557, suggested by the date on the bell located in the church’s bell tower. The current St. Hedwig church was built for the evangelicals between 1608 and 1609 (Hof 1999), and the church served the evangelical residents of Rybnica Leśna until March 26, 1654 when it was handed over to the Catholics (Bartsch 1969). From then on, the church functioned as a dependent of the parish in Mieroszów, though it was also used as a cemetery chapel by local evangelicals who were the majority in the village’s religious structure (Andres 1848; Ludwig 1908/1909). In 1867, the church bell tower was rebuilt or expanded, located along the cemetery wall, with its older, probably 18th-century base, serving as the entrance gate to the churchyard (Bericht des Provinzial-Konservators 1931). Restoration work on the church began in 1930, supported by Prince von Pless, who provided materials and funded Hübner the architect (Bartsch 1969). Post-war, the church underwent renovation in 1963 and comprehensive restoration from 1997 to 1998 (Bartnik et al. 2005). Currently, St. Hedwig’s Church in Rybnica Leśna is a dependent of St. Francis’ parish in Assisi (Bałabuch 2005). The church has a wooden structure built on masonry foundations, constructed with a timber frame and having a rectangular sanctuary. The interior features original 17th- and 18th-century furnishings, including a mannerist main altar, pulpit, gallery walls, and two rows of benches from the 17th century. The church is a valuable example of Silesian rural religious architecture (Table 1 and Table 2). It is surrounded by a cemetery laid out in an oval shape, older than the present church itself, enclosed by a wall from the late 17th and early 18th centuries, with a bell tower of wooden masonry along its perimeter. Only a few tombstones from the late 19th century remain on the church cemetery grounds. Among the more valuable items are Baroque epitaphs from the 17th and 18th centuries, some of which are stored in the base of the bell tower. One particularly well-preserved example is the sandstone epitaph of Rosina Preusler, née Hillscherin, wife of glassmaker Hans Preusler, who died on 14 November 1693. Unfortunately, most of the preserved epitaph plates are in poor condition (broken or only preserved in fragments) (Table 1 and Table 2, Figure 4).

3.2.4. Zalesie

The village probably originated in the late 13th century (Rybka-Ceglecka et al. 1995). Zalesie undoubtedly suffered during the Hussite Wars, as evidenced by its reconstruction mentioned in 1510 (Skalitzky 1888/1889). By the 16th century, Zalesie was already part of the Bohemian Crown (von Wiese 1878/1879). During the Reformation, a Protestant cemetery was established in Zalesie, later taken over by Catholics during the Counter-Reformation and they built a wooden cemetery chapel here between 1717 and 1718. It is worth noting that since the Counter-Reformation, Zalesie has been inhabited almost exclusively by Catholics (Zimmermann 1789). In the 18th century, the village had a water mill and a school while most residents were involved in various crafts such as baking, distilling, blacksmithing, and shoemaking (Zimmermann 1789; Knie 1830), while there was also a merchant (Knie 1845). Between 1850 and 1889, Zalesie and its surroundings were affected by weather anomalies, such as severe storms with hail that caused significant damage (Hof 1999). Particularly devastating was the flood that struck Zalesie in 1882, resulting in the deaths of many residents. As noted by other historians, the village was developing until the 1880s, after which it gradually depopulated until the end of World War II (Rybka-Ceglecka et al. 1995). In the interwar period, Zalesie was a relatively small village with an irregular layout, situated along the main road passing through, typical for the Kłodzko region. The majority of residential and economic buildings, including the cemetery chapel at that time, were constructed of wood or wood masonry. Among the animals raised by Zalesie residents, horned cattle predominated, and beekeeping was also popular (Gemeindelexikon 1915). At the beginning of the 20th century, there was one tavern owned by the Wagner family and one shop in Zalesie. Near the church and cemetery, there was a school. Despite its attractive location for tourism, Zalesie did not develop significant catering or lodging facilities with most residents engaged in agriculture or working in nearby forests (Adreßbuch 1924/1925; Einwohnerbuch 1937). The end of World War II brought about border changes, and as a result, Zalesie became part of Poland. In 1946, the German population was expelled, and Polish settlers began to arrive. Despite an influx of new residents, the village gradually depopulated in the post-war period, probably influenced by unfavorable soil conditions (Staffa 1992).

The church of St. Anne in Zalesie was built on the site of a cemetery that existed since at least 1620. Construction of the church, authorized by the Archbishop of Prague (at that time the territory of the County of Kłodzko was under the Prague Archdiocese), began in 1717. The consecration of the church was performed on 17 October 1718, by Dean Eliasz Schreiber (Kögler 1881/1882). Soon after, the preserved main altar and pulpit were installed inside the church (Hof 1999)—the altar was transferred to Zalesie from the parish church in Bystrzyca Kłodzka (Herzig 1996). Since then, Zalesie has been a dependent of the Catholic parish in Bystrzyca Kłodzka. In the 19th century, a porch was added to the church building, and restoration work on the church furnishings was carried out in 1858 by J. Richter (information from the era is preserved on the church altar). In 1914, work was undertaken on the nave ceiling polychromy, and in 1920, restoration work on the altar was performed by painter Leo Richter from Lądek-Zdrój, who also created a new altarpiece depicting the church’s patron saint, St. Anne (the painter’s signature is on the altar). The last renovation before the end of World War II took place between 1937 and 1939. Interestingly, from 1939 to 1941, pastoral work in the church in Zalesie was conducted by Fr. Gerhard Hirschfelder, later a blessed martyr of the Catholic Church (1907–1942) (Hermaszewski and Papierniak 2003).

After World War II, the church porch was rebuilt. From 1991 to 1994, a comprehensive renovation was carried out, during which the roof covering, wall cladding, and foundations were reinforced (Bartnik et al. 2005). Currently, the church of St. Anne in Zalesie serves as a dependent church of the parish of St. Michael the Archangel in Bystrzyca Kłodzka (Bałabuch 2005). The church of St. Anne in Zalesie is a wooden structure built with a timber frame on a stone foundation. It has a rectangular plan, with a hall-like interior and a square chancel, covered by a saddle roof with wooden shingles and a small turret on the ridge. The interior of the church is particularly noteworthy, with a nave ceiling adorned with caissons from around 1722 depicting scenes from the Old and New Testaments. Among the other valuable elements of the church furnishings are the mannerist and baroque-style main altar with a 1920 altarpiece by painter Leo Richter depicting St. Anne, as well as the pulpit, a series of stations-of-the-cross paintings, and an organ loft, although currently without an organ (Brzezicki and Nielsen 2006) (

Table 3. Description of research villages (Zalesie, Nowa Bystrzyca and Międzygórze): comparison of historical conditions and their contemporary state (Kieres and Szarapo 1998a, 1998b, 1998c; Rybka-Ceglecka 2002; Żelbromski 1976).

		Zalesie	Nowa Bystrzyca	Międzygórze
Location		Lower Silesian Voivodeship, Kłodzko County, Bystrzyca Kłodzka Commune—rural area	Lower Silesian Voivodeship, Kłodzko County, Bystrzyca Kłodzka Commune—rural area	Lower Silesian Voivodeship, Kłodzko County, Bystrzyca Kłodzka Commune—rural area
Time of the establishment	church	18th century	18th century	18th century
	cemetery	17th century	18th century	18th century
Heritage protection		Yes	Yes	Yes
Church
Dedicated to		St. Anne	Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary	St Joseph
Architectural style		Baroque	Baroque	Baroque
Denominational affiliation	in the past	Evangelical	Evangelical	Evangelical
	contemporary	Roman Catholic	Roman Catholic	Roman Catholic

and

Table 4. Analysis of church locations (Zalesie, Nowa Bystrzyca, Międzygórze) and architectural elements (Kieres and Szarapo 1998a, 1998b, 1998c; Rybka-Ceglecka 2002; Żelbromski 1976).

	Zalesie	Nowa Bystrzyca	Międzygórze
Location of the church and cemetery	Located on a hillside, away from the main road, in the central part of the village	Situated on the slope of a hill, away from the main road, in the central part of the village	Located in the center of the village, by the road, accessible via steps in the central part of the village
Description of the spatial layout	The cemetery has a rectangular layout, with a clear spatial arrangement, and the church is not oriented	The cemetery has a layout resembling an elongated rectangle, with a clear spatial arrangement. There is a path lined with hawthorn leading to the cemetery and the church. The church itself is not oriented	The cemetery is laid out in the shape of an elongated rectangle, with a clear spatial arrangement. The church is oriented
Important architectural elements	Tombstones (1st and 2nd halves of 20th century), slabs and graves (1st half of 20th century)	Cemetery wall (before 18th century), chapel (before 18th century), gate (2nd half of 19th century), tombstones (2nd half of 19th century, 1st and 2nd halves of 20th century), graves (2nd half of 20th century)	Cemetery wall (before 18th century), chapel (1st half of 19th century), tombstones (1st half of 20th century), cast iron plates (1st and 2nd halves of the 19th century, 1st half of 20th century), stone Crucifixion figure (18th century)

, Figure 5).

The wooden church is located within an active churchyard cemetery. Established in the 17th century as a Protestant cemetery, it saw the construction of the current church in 1717–1718, originally as a cemetery chapel. The cemetery’s area was expanded to the west at the turn of the 20th century, eventually assuming a rectangular shape. After World War II, most pre-war tombstones were removed. According to an inventory from 1998, there were approximately 20 tombstones from the first half of the 20th century and 25 from after 1945 (Kieres and Szarapo 1998c). An analysis conducted in 2022 showed a slight decrease in these numbers, with some tombstones deteriorating significantly. The most striking feature of the historic cemetery composition is the large cemetery crucifix depicting the crucified Christ in full relief. A marble plaque with a quote from the Gospel of St. John in German is placed at its base: “I am the resurrection and the life. He who believes in me, though he may die, he shall live” (John 11:25). The historical tombstones within the cemetery are mostly modest in design, using materials such as granite and sandstone with some featuring wrought iron grave crosses. It is worth noting that the churchyard cemetery in Zalesie undoubtedly holds significant historical value as a well-preserved example of a rural churchyard cemetery spanning over 400 years which continues to serve its original purpose uninterrupted (Table 3 and Table 4).

3.2.5. Nowa Bystrzyca

Nowa Bystrzyca is said to have existed as early as the beginning of the 14th century (Rybka-Ceglecka et al. 1995). The settlement suffered significantly during the Thirty Years’ War, and in 1684, it was acquired as state property by the town of Bystrzyca Kłodzka. In the second half of the 18th century, there was a water mill in operation here, along with a school and several craftsmen, including two bakers, a distiller, two butchers, two weavers, a blacksmith, a shoemaker, and a carpenter (Zimmermann 1789). The village also had four water mills and a sawmill (Knie 1830). By the turn of the 20th century, in a ddition to its agricultural role, the village gained an industrial character with the establishment of a paper mill and two wooden peg factories, among others. During the interwar period, Nowa Bystrzyca was primarily an agricultural village, also offering catering and lodging facilities; in 1937, the village was inhabited by 623 residents engaged in agriculture and various crafts (Einwohnerbuch 1937). After World War II, Nowa Bystrzyca retained its agricultural and industrial character, although over the years, the village has experienced depopulation.

The present Church of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary, formerly the Chapel of the Holy Trinity in Nowa Bystrzyca, is located on the site of an earlier structure. Around 1600, an evangelical cemetery was established in the village, where a chapel was built after 1631. Efforts were made over time to obtain permission to celebrate Mass in the chapel, and as a result, on 8 October 1699, the chapel was consecrated, dedicated to the Holy Trinity (Kögler 1881/1882). At that time, the village belonged to the parish of Bystrzyca Kłodzka. The church likely proved too small over time, leading to the construction of a new wooden structure in 1726 to replace it. In 1804, there were two bells in the church tower (Hof 1999). In 1827, 1828, and 1831, the wooden church in Nowa Bystrzyca fell victim to thieves. The organ was modernized in 1841 (Kögler 1881/1882); in 1875, the presbytery of the church was lined with new sandstone slabs; and in 1877, the church received a new organ. It previously belonged to organist Joseph Bruner of Kłodzko, who sold it for 650 talers, but the instrument was built by organ builders Traugott Wünsch and Joseph Lux (Kögler 1881/1882; Prasał 2018). Another renovation of the church’s facade and interior took place in 1880, estimated to have cost 200 marks (Kögler 1881/1882). In 1914, Nowa Bystrzyca was established as a separate parish (Rybka-Ceglecka et al. 1995). The last renovations before 1945 were carried out in 1923 (Hof 1999). After 1945, the Church of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary in Nowa Bystrzyca became a dependent church of the parish of St. Mary Magdalene in Wójtowice (Bałabuch 2005). In 1966, the church roof was renovated, and in 1977, the cladding was replaced with boards. In the 1990s, another renovation of the church roof was undertaken, this time using shingles, while in 1999, part of the church’s foundation was re-mortared (Rybka-Ceglecka 2002) (Table 3 and Table 4).

The dependent Church of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary in Nowa Bystrzyca faces east and is built in a half-timbered construction on a stone foundation, rectangular in plan with a distinct chancel and annexes. It is topped with a four-pitched roof featuring a turret on the ridge, crowned with a cast iron representation of the Holy Trinity. The church’s furnishings primarily date back to the 18th century and include a Baroque main altar with a sculpture of the Virgin Mary at its center, topped by an impressive representation of the Holy Trinity, a pulpit, an organ choir, and a set of 14 stations-of-the-cross paintings (Table 3 and Table 4, Figure 6).

The Church of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary is situated on the southern boundary of the cemetery adjacent to it, which has the form of an elongated rectangle. As mentioned earlier, an evangelical cemetery was established in Nowa Bystrzyca around 1600, where a cemetery chapel was subsequently erected. According to Kögler, before 1657, Catholic residents of Nowa Bystrzyca and Spalona buried their deceased at the hospital cemetery in Bystrzyca Kłodzka. In 1772, a brick mortuary chapel was built southeast of the church. Around that time, a Baroque gate probably appeared at the cemetery entrance. In 1795, the preserved Baroque crucifixion group was placed near the chapel, which still stands today. In 1861, the roofing of the mortuary chapel and the coping of the cemetery wall were replaced and the cemetery was expanded in 1871, while in 1872, Ignatz Lux endowed a new cemetery crucifix. A comprehensive renovation of the mortuary chapel located within the cemetery was carried out in 1875 (Kögler 1881/1882).

The cemetery served the residents of Nowa Bystrzyca until the end of World War II, but after 1945, a significant portion of the historic tombstones were removed. In 1983, the roofing of the former mortuary chapel was renovated, replacing the asbestos covering with metal sheets, and the facade was also refurbished (Bartnik et al. 2005). At the beginning of the 20th century, an inventory of the cemetery identified four freestanding tombstones from the second half of the 19th century, and 50 dated to the first half of the 20th century (Kieres and Szarapo 1998b). In 1993, water damaged and destroyed part of the cemetery wall, which was dismantled in 1996 and rebuilt using tombstones from before 1945 found on the cemetery grounds (Rybka-Ceglecka 2002) (Table 3 and Table 4).

In the 2022 inventory, it was documented that over 40 tombstones, grave plaques, and fragments, mostly from the 19th and early 20th centuries, are still preserved within the cemetery, primarily serving as structural elements of the cemetery wall. These artifacts are crafted from white marble, granite, and sandstone, featuring simple forms of tombstones and plaques. Notably, there are a few porcelain oval plaques and one with a preserved portrait of Anton Dannek (1896–1924).

3.2.6. Międzygórze

Międzygórze, first mentioned in 1580 (Volkmer 1889/1890), began as a settlement of loggers working for the von Tschirnhaus family from Międzylesie. In 1592, Międzygórze was purchased by the town of Bystrzyca Kłodzka and subsequently sold to Michael von Tschirnhaus for 18,000 talers. The village remained in the hands of this family until the Thirty Years’ War when it became the property of the Imperial Chamber (Zimmermann 1789). In 1684, Międzygórze was sold to the von Althan family. During the 17th century, iron ore was mined here, a practice that ceased after the Thirty Years’ War (Rybka-Ceglecka et al. 1995). By the second half of the 18th century, Międzygórze was described as a large village inhabited by 1503 residents, including various craftsmen such as a barber, two bakers, a cooper, two distillers, a brewer, two butchers, a musical instrument maker, 22 weavers, a bricklayer, a barrel maker, two blacksmiths, three tailors, five shoemakers, and two carpenters. This diverse artisan community reflected the village’s prosperity at that time. Międzygórze also boasted a palace with two farms, a school, and three water mills (Zimmermann 1789). In 1783, the village was struck by a flood, and on 25 August, 1805 it experienced another major flood, reported to be even larger (Kögler 1883/1884). During this period, Międzygórze had a school, a forest ranger’s lodge, and a sawmill. The village consisted of two parts: one owned by the von Althan family and the other by the local freehold community. The residents were largely engaged in cottage weaving, and there were three water mills and a sawmill (Knie 1845).

In 1834 the Międzygórze estate and in 1858 the communal property was acquired by Princess Marianna Orańska, the owner of the Kamieniec Ząbkowicki estates. She significantly contributed to the development of Międzygórze, which became a popular mountain resort, and in the mid-19th century tourist infrastructure began to develop rapidly here. The village’s attractive location sparked great interest, leading to the establishment of numerous sanatoriums, inns, and restaurants. The tourism peak in Międzygórze occurred at the turn of the 20th century, during which significant urban development took place with the establishment of new streets and neighborhoods. After 1945, Międzygórze largely retained its tourist character (Rybka-Ceglecka et al. 1995).

The Church of St. Joseph the Betrothed of the Virgin Mary In Międzygórze (formerly the cemetery chapel) is chronologically the youngest wooden church in the former County of Kłodzko. Construction began on 24 June 1740, with the necessary wood donated by the local landowner, Maria Aloysia Countess von Althann. The builders of the church, then a cemetery chapel, were Franz Teuber, who donated the plot for this purpose, Friedrich Keitig, and Heinrich Ludwig. Construction was completed on 11 August 1742, when a gilded ball and cross were placed at the top of the spire. The chapel was dedicated to All Saints, as well as Jesus, Mary, and St. Joseph (Hof 1999; Kögler 2001). In 1781, a late-Baroque sandstone crucifix, still preserved today, was placed in front of the church. In 1792, repairs were carried out on the church and its roof, with further work done in 1924 (Hof 1999). It was during this period between the wars that a curacy was established in Międzygórze, constituting an independent church administration unit, although it did not have the status of a separate parish (Rybka-Ceglecka et al. 1995) (Table 3 and Table 4). After 1945, the wooden church in Międzygórze became a parish church and remains so to this day. In 2000–2001, a new roof covering was installed, replacing the old slate with new wooden shingles, and damaged wooden elements were reconstructed (Bałabuch 2005). It is noteworthy that until that time, the church in Międzygórze was the only one in the Sudetens covered with slate. Restoration work on the church I was carried out in 2013–2014 (Table 3 and Table 4, Figure 7).

The parish church of St. Joseph the Betrothed of the Virgin Mary is non-oriented, built of wood on a stone foundation, in the shape of a rectangle with a spire placed at the ridge of the roof. The church has a separately delineated sanctuary. Inside, it has preserved rich Baroque furnishings, including the main altar from around 1740 with a painting by H. Richter from the late 19th century, a Baroque pulpit, and wooden galleries along the nave walls. The church is located on a hillside, adjacent to the former cemetery, established in the second half of the 18th century along with the construction of the current church, which then served as a cemetery chapel. The cemetery served the residents of Międzygórze until the end of World War II and for some time thereafter; today, however, it is in disuse. At the beginning of the 20th century, a small number of historic tombstones were identified within the cemetery (Kieres and Szarapo 1998a). An inventory conducted in 2022 revealed that over 20 tombstones and memorial plaques are preserved in the cemetery, the oldest dating back to the first half of the 19th century. They are placed on the surrounding wall. Among them, the tombstone of the Weiss family, owners of the local hotel, is particularly noteworthy. Buried there are Josef Weiss, hotel owner with the title of court supplier to the Prussian prince (1833–1919), his wife Amalie Weiss, nee Schmidt (1832–1913), Maria Weiss (1861–1921), and Paul Weiss (1862–1903). Another interesting tombstone is that of Maria Gauglitz, owner of the local freehold, who died at the age of 69 in 1857, and her husband Franz Gauglitz, owner of the freehold in Międzygórze, who died in 1854. Also notable is the cast iron memorial plaque to Father Franz Winter (1866–1925), the pastor of St. Joseph’s curacy in Międzygórze (Table 3 and Table 4).

3.3. Current State of the Sites

The indicator analysis was conducted based on information gathered in the field. Each of the study sites (the church along with the cemetery and the surrounding area) was evaluated according to specific indicators. Perceiving the landscape and space as multi-dimensional, each space has a number of characteristic elements, repetitions, dominants, or small details, which together create a unique image. Greenery plays an exceptional role in shaping the landscape, serving as a background while also building the multi-dimensionality of views, creating frames for visual axes, and introducing rhythm or symmetry (

Table 5. Indicator Analysis: Assessment of Visual Landscape Aspects, Conservation State and Architectural Value, and Land Use.

		Indicators	A	B	C	D	E	F
Assessment of visual landscape aspects	1.	Degree of visibility of the church with the cemetery in the panorama	1	−1	1	2	1	−2
	2.	Degree of tidiness of the cemetery surroundings	1	1	2	2	1	2
	3.	Degree of preservation of the cemetery’s compositional layout	2	1	−1	1	−2	1
	4.	Presence of compositional axes	1	1	0	1	−2	1
	5.	Presence of view openings	1	2	1	2	0	0
	6.	Presence of dominant and subdominant elements on the cemetery grounds and in the immediate vicinity	−1	−2	2	1	1	−1
Assessment of architectural value	7.	Architectural value of the church building	2	2	2	2	2	2
	8.	Architectural value of the burial ground	1	−1	−2	1	−2	1
	9.	Architectural value of the enclosure	1	0	−1	2	−2	1
	10.	Architectural value of the old stonework	0	−2	−2	−1	−2	−1
Assessment of land use	12.	Degree of topographical variation outside the cemetery	1	1	2	2	0	2
	13.	Degree of topographical variation inside the cemetery	1	0	1	2	0	2
	14.	Degree of land use diversity in the immediate vicinity of the cemetery	2	1	2	2	1	0
	15.	State of vegetation preservation	0	1	1	−1	−1	0
	16.	State of vegetation tidiness	1	−1	2	0	−1	1
	17.	Presence of old trees	1	1	2	−1	−1	1

A—Grzmiąca, B—Kamieńczyk, C—Międzygórz, D—Nowa Bystrzyca, E—Rybnica Leśna, F—Zalesie.

, Figure 8, Figure 9).

The values of the indicators assigned to assess the visual aspects of the landscape mostly range between one and two. Particularly high evaluations were given to the degree of orderliness of the cemetery surroundings, the presence of compositional axes, and the existence of visual openings (for most analyzed sites). However, two sites—Kamieńczyk and Zalesie—were classified as not visible in the panorama. The values of the indicator assessing the degree of preservation of the cemetery’s compositional layout are varied, reflecting transformations and damage to the historical plan. This could be associated with the displacement of residents from these areas and the influx of new settlers. The lack of care for burial places may have been crucial in losing the clarity of the spatial arrangement in its original form. At the same time, it should be emphasized that positive indicator values indicate that cemeteries with churches are significant elements of the landscape, contributing to the regional character (Table 5, Figure 8 and Figure 9).

The assessment of the architectural value includes an analysis of churches and other architectural elements. The architectural value was highly rated, as the churches represent remarkable examples of Baroque wooden sacred architecture. Most of them are currently in very good technical condition. Unfortunately, other architectural elements within the analyzed sites are mostly in poor or very poor condition. Many stone elements such as tombstones, epitaphs, and grave crosses show signs of damage due to lack of protective measures, maintenance, or repair. This also results from neglect towards individual gravesites and burial places. An important architectural feature within cemetery spaces are the enclosures and gates which symbolically bridge the sacred and profane realms, facilitating deeper connections with God and loved ones. Damage to these elements contributes to the loss of the original layout of cemetery areas, blurring the boundaries between the cemetery space and its external surroundings, potentially leading to more dynamic deterioration within burial sites (Table 5, Figure 8, Figure 9).

The evaluation of land use considers coverage and topographical diversity, as well as the assessment of greenery within the sites and their immediate surroundings. The greenery within the analyzed sites is in fairly good condition but should undergo regular maintenance. The indicators in the table also take into account its crucial role in creating visual value within spaces, framing views, and serving as dominant features (Table 5, Figure 8, Figure 9). The assessment also examines the condition and arrangement of greenery, as well as the presence of old-growth trees, which significantly impact landscape perception.

4. Conclusions

Rural churchyard landscapes on the Polish–Czech border are exceptional. They are characterized by diverse physiognomy and scenery that influences the cultural heritage of this region. Preserving churchyards within the village landscape is crucial for reconstructing the history of the Lower Silesia region. The analyzed area contains many sites of significant architectural importance, and those selected for analysis in this article are crucial for this landscape.

Changes and the introduction of new contemporary elements in a space lead to the loss or fading of historical conditions, but new elements also create new history for a place. An important question that arises when creating guidelines for the care of such sites is: how can we protect these unique places while simultaneously building and creating new elements in a historical, heritage space? Another challenge is the small, cramped, often limited space of historic rural cemeteries and the minimal possibilities for cohesive spatial development. This often results from different types of land use directly adjacent to the cemeteries or the natural physiographic conditions of the Polish–Czech border areas, such as terrain shape and significant land slopes. Considering the visual and spatial analyses conducted (including index analysis, which assessed visual landscape aspects, preservation status, architectural value aspects, and land cover structure), the following conclusions and guidelines can be formulated to positively influence the future creation of the new physiognomy of rural church cemeteries, with special emphasis and respect for the historical values of these places:

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Churches in the rural landscape are an important spatial dominant, so their proper exposure in panoramas should be maintained.

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For shaping a positive image of the place (rural church cemeteries), it is essential to ensure the order and proper management not only of the cemeteries themselves but also of the directly adjacent areas.

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Contemporary changes in the spatial layouts of cemeteries should take into account the most important principles of historical spatial design and compositional axes so that the most important elements of the original layouts are visible/readable.

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Rural cemeteries are often small in terms of area. To seemingly enlarge their space, it is necessary to shape or maintain view openings to the surrounding landscape, especially considering the possibility of shaping long and wide visual axes extending far beyond the formal cemetery space.

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The technical and aesthetic condition of churches is extremely important. For local communities, these are objects of mental, sentimental, and religious significance. Maintaining architectural values and caring for them according to conservation guidelines will shape the positive image of these objects and attract new users and the development of sacral tourism in these areas (Saifi et al. 2021; Saifi and Yüceer 2012).

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Terrain topography diversity increases the dynamics and attractiveness of the landscape, views, and panoramas (through the diversity of forms and terrain variability). At the same time, spatial design and the introduction of changes in the existing layouts of rural cemeteries with varied terrain can be challenging due to the proper matching of form, expression, and spatial concepts.

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Greenery in cemeteries contributes to the creation of landscape interiors, view axes, compositional axes, and visual curtains. At the same time, rural cemeteries are spaces where symbolism plays a significant role in building the ideology/function of the place. The tree symbolizes longevity and rebirth. In Christianity, it symbolizes human nature and the pursuit of perfection (Eliade 1957; Ronnberg and Martin 2010; Sonntag 2014). Therefore, it is crucial to choose trees with significant aesthetic values for new plantings, standing out in shape, height, form, or leaf color variability. Proper care and maintenance of existing greenery should also be ensured.

Churches along with their surrounding churchyards create a sacred space, serving as places of worship, prayer, contemplation, and reflection. Through their architectural form, churches dominate the landscape and help identify specific areas, and Baroque wooden churches, as selected sites, are unique in form, detail, and layout. Rural churchyards are valuable for historical, religious, cultural, and social reasons, and they must be preserved from oblivion. Future research should focus on a comprehensive assessment of rural landscape value to save them from neglect and further degradation.