Introduction to the Soundscapes of Religion

When listening to religious music, what do you perceive more: aesthetics or spirituality? When listening to music of a profane character with no spiritual roots in a church, does it have the same effect on you or is the effect different? The place, whether filled with sound or silence, can be an important factor in evoking unique feelings that lead a person to the realization of their own spirituality and humanity.

This Special Issue, titled “Introduction to the Soundscapes of Religion,” focuses on today’s main challenges associated with natural sounds, acoustic sounds, silence, the aesthetically high-meaning, structured sound called music, and the role of these in the formation of spirituality and the realization of the presence of something greater than oneself. Such soundscapes can lead individuals to new discoveries and steps in their ontological and epistemological journeys.

The first challenge in listening to soundscapes of religion, regardless of the religion in question, is that it can lead individuals to form and seek out communities with similar values, beliefs, or denominations. As the backdrop of all human activity, soundscape ecology acquires a holistic meaning in the context of complex human existence, highlighting our belonging to society and our ability to be with and listen to ourselves—something that can also be called our personal soundscapes of religion.

That is why many papers in this Special Issue discuss the different interactions between the senses, emotions, spirituality, musical and religious experiences, and disposition. The authors contributing to this Special Issue mention various sounds of immersive environments such as mountains, Romani communities, academic institutions, Christian churches, private chapels, and landscapes. Paradoxically, theoretical and academic environments can have a special internal soundscape of disputes (with a concentration on personal soundscape), while highly sophisticated and stylistic Christian churches can offer a different soundscape.

The papers included in this Special Issue also mention other cases of soundscapes, such as phonetic artistic poems, the world of witches and their practices in the United Kingdom, pilgrimages from Sali and folk singing as a practice adopted into the Christian mass and folk piety, and the soundscape of a majestic and unique organ in an eighteenth-century private chapel of the Hungarian aristocracy (Anton Erdődy, 1714–1769). These examples show the different possibilities of human activities that can create a vast number of soundscapes of religious experience. They reveal the approaches of individuals to their own microenvironments or personal soundscapes, which form a complex spiritual world with ties to macroenvironments, society, and denominations.

The ten papers published in this Special Issue, discussing Buddhism, Taoism, Islamic Sufism, Christian celebrations and rituals in Catholic spaces, Pentecostalism, Wicca, and modern atheist rational approaches from highly developed modern societies, demonstrate the existence of soundscapes of religion across the world.

Petra Valovicić, Helen Cornish, and Jana Belišová explored the disposition, practices, and rituals of special communities with a focus on ethnological elements. They obtained different results than Vlastimil Dufka, Jana Kalinayová-Bartová, Eva Szórádová, Tomasz Jeż, and Claudio Campesato, who focused on traditional denominations. The latter scholars approached the problem of soundscapes in religion by concentrating on music as the main object of research, adding aspects of aesthetics, the psychology of hearing and listening, liturgy, and dogmatic Christian theology. These four papers employed traditional musicological–historical (heuristic) methods.

Special topics were discussed by Marcus Zagorski, Wei Wu, and Ali Yansori, who approached the problem from different perspectives. They investigated an object that is not music itself (such as mountains, poems, or music theory), then added sounds and music to their object of research. These sounds and music serve as accompanying effects in the relationship between the object and the subject, between the soundscape and the listener. They emphasized special environments and the natural sounds of these objects, which can lead us to construct a complex research territory called the soundscapes of religions as a chain of sound—noise—music—senses—body—brain, or as a somewhat longer sequence of sound (acoustics and ecology)—music (musicology)—beauty (aesthetics)—senses (body biology)—perception (psychology)—spirituality (theology)—reception by a society (sociology)—traditions and habits (ethnology)—beliefs (religions)—ideas (philosophy). It may not be surprising how difficult it is to classify and categorize music performances in some of these papers. We can talk about Gregorian chant, Christian hymns, liturgical music, paraliturgical music, organ music, sacred music, improvised drumming and singing in the English music tradition, pagan rock and pop, Croatian folk and Christian music, Christian Romani folk and pop music, Chinese religious music, Zen music, soundscape music, etc.

Let us now take a brief look at the individual papers. Marcus Zagorski, an expert in sound ecology, delved into the problem by operating with the terms “geophonic and biophonic sounds,” crystallized in sound ecology. He mentions that religions like Buddhism and Taoism are closely associated with the concept of sacred mountain soundscapes. Zagorski used examples from the personal experiences of climbers, explorers, hermits, poets, monks, and artists who spent time in the mountains. His modern, possibly atheistic or pantheistic, approach criticizes anthropocentric attitudes towards reality. Sound and silence in nature, especially in mountains, which are seen as something transcendent and sacred, enhance our perception of the non-human world. Mountain environments, characterized by minimal human noise and abundant natural sounds, offer a reality beyond human influence. In soundscape ecology, this is marked by reduced human sounds and increased natural sounds. Philosophically and religiously, mountain soundscapes are viewed as spaces of permanence and mystery, offering an eternal dimension and a higher reality. These soundscapes have historically facilitated sacred experiences across cultures and periods. Zagorski combined philosophy, religion, and soundscape ecology to explore this phenomenon. According to him, “in most cases, the mountain soundscape is not the immediate object of contemplation, but it is a conspicuous presence... in relation to a moment of heightened awareness or sacred experience”.

Ali Yansori investigated the implications of separating music theory from its practical side and explored the place of spirituality within this context. It was not until the nineteenth century and the influence of Schopenhauer that a true unification of music theory and practice achieved metaphysical and spiritual significance. Schopenhauer’s metaphysics allowed music to become a spiritual refuge in an age dominated by positivism and exemplified by projects like Scriabin’s Mysterium. This paper contrasted the Western tension between theory and practice in music with Sufism, demonstrating how spiritual movements like Sufism challenge musicological research. Additionally, it reflected on the current state of music research, suggesting that the music and musicology of the twentieth century and beyond have not met the spiritual aspirations of previous generations. He finally summarized the soundscapes of religions in a modern multidisciplinary approach. According to Yansori, Western musicology has always struggled with accepting senses and feelings, as it considers the “rational contemplation of music to be the true form of spiritual activity”. Sufism, a form of Islamic mysticism, poses a challenge for musicological research because it has always accepted individual experience as a part of research. Even so, his final statement cast doubt on all exact research, claiming that “a scholar, aiming to explore mysticism under the current musicological framework... inevitably bypasses the quintessence of mysticism—that is, the spiritual experience itself, which can be neither researched nor described”. Finally, his paper confirmed the contemporary situation in humanistic disciplines, where the “Western world” and all parts of the scientific world in musicology are becoming closer to each other.

Jana Belišová’s research from 2012 and 2013 provides insights into Romani Christian music in eastern Slovakia, highlighting its diverse soundscapes. She discussed Romani communities in Slovakia that have embraced Pentecostalism. Their unique Romani Pentecostal music extends beyond traditional religious singing to include improvised instrumental pieces, glossolalia, shouts, healing rituals, and blessings. This music evokes intense sensory and emotional experiences, often involving physical movements like dancing and raising hands. These actions help convey emotions and foster a connection with God. Crying is common and brings a sense of release and positive feelings. These experiences occur in various settings, including churches, homes, rented halls, and outdoor spaces, especially among younger Romani Pentecostal congregations. For many Romani people, Pentecostalism marks a profound spiritual transformation, symbolizing a move from their “old” selves to a new sense of understanding, connection, and emotional release. Pentecostal congregations provide a platform for expressing emotions, engaging in personal interactions, and participating actively in worship, fostering a strong sense of community and shared responsibility. This faith deeply influences their daily lives through frequent gatherings, a holistic approach to personal challenges, and spiritual guidance.

Petra Valovicić explored the significance of singing within the context of religious pilgrimage to Piškera, focusing on the relationship between the Sali community and the Kornati archipelago in Croatia. Singing during the pilgrimage ceremony serves as a means for the community to reaffirm its cultural continuity, particularly in a location once inhabited by its fishermen. The act of singing not only fosters a festive atmosphere but also symbolizes the community’s enduring presence within the archipelago. Valovicić’s research is grounded in her firsthand experience of the pilgrimage, where participants form a short procession while singing and walking towards the Catholic Church of Little Mary. Viewing this through the lens of ritual performance, singing transforms the act of navigating the archipelago into a cultural expression rich with layered meanings that reflect shifts in power dynamics. Furthermore, Valovicić’s text explores how singing during the pilgrimage constructs a sense of sacredness within the archipelago, integral to the community’s cultural values and identity. The act of singing serves as a medium for embodying cultural ideals and elevates the secular space into a sacred periphery. Ultimately, singing plays a pivotal role in creating and embodying significance within the pilgrimage experience, highlighting the transformative power of music within both religious and cultural contexts.

Helen Cornish explored the role of musicking in establishing authenticity and fostering a sense of belonging among pagans and magical practitioners. Sound particularly through pagan rock and pop plays a central role in expressing new religious authority during rituals. Despite being often overlooked, these practices can be reinterpreted through sensory and sonic perspectives. Musicking not only cultivates community and authority but also facilitates altered states of consciousness and communication with spirit worlds. Soundscapes are integral to witchcraft traditions, enriching the discourse on musicality and religion. Cornish’s research is anchored in the May Day ritual organized by the Sussex Pagan Circle, predominantly comprising Wiccans, traditional witches, and druids. The ritual aims to celebrate the sun’s warmth and the land’s fertility and invite abundance in the forthcoming months. Improvised drumming and chanting are pivotal practices in their ritualistic music.

Claudio Campesato discussed concrete examples of the tension between rational and emotional perceptions of sacred music in the eighth and ninth centuries, focusing on disputes over the role of a prominent early medieval author. In his Liber Officialis, Amalarius of Metz explored the impact of religious music on both the body and the soul. He portrayed listening to and singing liturgical music as activities generating intense sensory and emotional experiences. Amalarius emphasized a unique emotion, a “spiritual state” characterized by a vulnerable heart sensitive to God’s voice and capable of tears. This concept contrasts with the patristic era, particularly in the East, where liturgical music was seen as an obstruction to compunction, a tearful state of prayer or meditation. Amalarius presented an evolution of this doctrine, suggesting that music has a natural power to move listeners into a receptive state of God’s word. He described a physical reaction to music that leads to spiritual transformation, ultimately encouraging deep, attentive, and fruitful listening and inspiring conversion to good actions. Campesato gave medieval examples from Catholic liturgical practice.

Vlastimil Dufka had no doubts about the interplay between senses, celebration, music, and religion and provided a detailed explanation of the Gloria in the context of the Catholic Mass. He mentioned a version of the Gloria in the Cantus Catholici hymnal (its two editions, the 1655 Levoča and the 1700 Trnava one) as an important source for liturgical music in Slovakia, Central Europe. According to Dufka, music is vital to human life and faith and is historically intertwined with religious expression and worship. One of the oldest Christian hymns, “Gloria in excelsis Deo,” had initially been part of morning and evening prayers and later became a staple of the Holy Mass, still being sung during Eucharistic celebrations on Sundays and feast days. His study examined the historical use of this hymn, focusing on its textual sources and offering a theological analysis for its deeper understanding. It also presents current guidelines for today’s use of the hymn.

Tomasz Jeż discussed the significant role of the Society of Jesus (the Jesuits) in Silesia in the early modern period (in the sixteenth century), focusing on their use of music as a cultural strategy in their mission. He reviewed various forms of Jesuit activities chronologically, and aligned them with music–theoretical narratives, meditation methods, and Ludwik Bielawski’s zonal theory of musical time. The Jesuits systematically employed music performances to shape religious culture, support social habits, and regulate the community’s religious cycles. These activities were integrated into the liturgical cycle and influenced the community’s sacred time through recurrent performances. The Jesuits adapted their musical practices to the local conditions, carefully analyzing and defining the cultural potential of music. This cultivation of musical culture significantly impacted the Jesuit order, individuals, and communities, and transformed their lives and the times they inhabited.

Jana Kalinayová Bartová and Eva Szórádová explored the Christian piety of the Hungarian aristocracy in the early modern period, focusing on Count Anton Erdődy (1714–1769), a member of a prominent noble family. His personal piety, influenced by familial, social, and spiritual traditions, shaped his artistic patronage, as exemplified by a unique Baroque organ in the chapel of his former mansion in Trenčianske Bohuslavice, Slovakia. The atypical design of this instrument reflects aesthetic, theological, and religious considerations. Originally commissioned to serve both Erdődy and the local community, the organ now stands as a symbol of culture and charity, with ongoing efforts to conserve it and preserve its legacy.

Wei Wu analyzed rhyme, rhythm, syllables, tones, patterns, and scholars’ approaches to pentametric poetry, focusing on rhythmic structure and beat rhythm, which together build up a resonating acoustic effect on listeners. Wu paid attention to singing and reciting poems as two methods of presenting “The Song of the 196 Lady [Wang] the Central Watchlord” and discussed the possibility of the existence of tonal parallelism and its contribution to musical rhythm. Chinese classical poetry, originally intertwined with music, gradually evolved independently, causing its musical aspects to be overlooked. This paper examined the rhythmic and rhyming characteristics of poems in the “Declarations of the Perfected” (Zhen’gao), a fourth-century Daoist text compiled by Tao Hongjing. Zhen’gao contains poems and instructions given to the Xu family by deities through the medium Yang Xi, which were initially transmitted orally through singing or recitation, as Yang Xi’s use of verbs like “sing” and “recite” also confirms. The continuous rhymes of the poems aimed to create an echo-like aural effect, highlighting their musical nature. Ultimately, they led the listener to the realization of spiritual connections.

In conclusion, this Special Issue provides a profound exploration of the multifaceted relationship between sound, music, and spirituality across various religious traditions and cultural contexts. The diverse range of papers presented in this Special Issue highlights the complexity and richness of religious soundscapes, offering new insights into how these auditory environments shape and reflect spiritual experiences, community identities, and individual practices. By examining examples from different parts of the world and various historical periods, this Special Issue underscores the universal yet unique ways in which sound influences religious life and human perception of the sacred.